Innovation Listing: Core Formation Period of the Fifth Technology Cycle (1940s-1970s)

   Computing and Microprocessors

    Electronic Computer Development (1940s)

  1940 

– Konrad Zuse’s Z3 electromechanical computer completion and binary arithmetic implementation

  –  Example: Z3 computer using 2,600 electromechanical relays performing 22-bit floating-point calculations

  –  Source: Zuse, Konrad. “The Computer – My Life.” Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1993.

– Bell Labs’ Complex Number Calculator development and remote operation demonstration

  –  Example: George Stibitz’s Model I relay calculator operated remotely from Dartmouth College conference

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “A History of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

– Iowa State University’s Atanasoff-Berry Computer design and electronic calculation principles

  –  Example: John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry’s ABC using 300 vacuum tubes for binary arithmetic

  –  Source: Mollenhoff, Clark R. “Atanasoff: Forgotten Father of the Computer.” Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988.

– Harvard Mark I computer project initiation and large-scale calculation planning

  –  Example: Howard Aiken’s Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator collaboration with IBM

  –  Source: Cohen, I. Bernard. “Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.

– British Colossus computer project beginning and cryptographic calculation development

  –  Example: Tommy Flowers’ electronic valve computer design for Bletchley Park code-breaking

  –  Source: Copeland, B. Jack. “Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park’s Codebreaking Computers.” Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

  1941 

– Zuse Z3 computer operational deployment and programmable calculation demonstration

  –  Example: World’s first working programmable computer using binary floating-point arithmetic system

  –  Source: Rojas, Raúl. “The Z1 and Z3 Computers.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 19, no. 2 (1997): 42-49.

– Atanasoff-Berry Computer electronic memory development and binary storage systems

  –  Example: Capacitor drum memory storing 30 50-bit binary numbers with electronic refresh

  –  Source: Burks, Arthur W., and Alice R. Burks. “The First Electronic Computer: The Atanasoff Story.” Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988.

– Harvard Mark I construction advancement and mechanical-electronic integration

  –  Example: 51-foot long electromechanical calculator with 765,000 components and 3,000 switches

  –  Source: Bashe, Charles J. “IBM’s Early Computers.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986.

– British code-breaking computer research expansion and electronic calculation methods

  –  Example: Colossus Mark I development using 1,500 electronic valves for Lorenz cipher breaking

  –  Source: Good, Jack. “Early Work on Computers at Bletchley.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 1 (1979): 38-48.

– Electronic calculation theory development and computational mathematics advancement

  –  Example: Claude Shannon’s information theory foundations for digital computation

  –  Source: Shannon, Claude E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal 27 (1948): 379-423.

  1942 

– Atanasoff-Berry Computer completion and electronic calculation demonstration

  –  Example: First electronic computer solving systems of 29 linear equations with 29 unknowns

  –  Source: Gustafson, John L. “Reconstruction of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer.” In “The First Computers,” edited by Raúl Rojas and Ulf Hashagen, 91-106. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000.

– Harvard Mark I systematic construction and precision calculation capability

  –  Example: Grace Hopper programming Mark I for Naval ballistics calculations and astronomical tables

  –  Source: Williams, Kathleen Broome. “Grace Hopper: Admiral of the Cyber Sea.” Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2004.

– Electronic numerical integrator concept development and differential equation solving

  –  Example: John Mauchly’s memorandum proposing electronic ENIAC computer design

  –  Source: Stern, Nancy. “From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers.” Bedford: Digital Press, 1981.

– British Colossus computer prototype construction and cryptographic applications

  –  Example: First Colossus machine operational for breaking German High Command Lorenz cipher

  –  Source: Carter, Frank. “The First Electronic Computer.” In “Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park’s Code-breaking Computers,” edited by B. Jack Copeland, 49-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

– Electronic calculation method systematization and computational procedure development

  –  Example: Development of standardized programming procedures for electronic computers

  –  Source: Goldstine, Herman H. “The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann.” Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972.

  1943 

– Harvard Mark I completion and astronomical calculation applications

  –  Example: Mark I computing ballistic tables for U.S. Navy and astronomical calculations for Naval Observatory

  –  Source: Campbell-Kelly, Martin, and William Aspray. “Computer: A History of the Information Machine.” New York: Basic Books, 1996.

– British Colossus computer operational deployment and code-breaking success

  –  Example: Colossus breaking German High Command communications enabling D-Day planning

  –  Source: Sale, Tony. “The Colossus Computer 1943-1996.” Kidderminster: M &M Baldwin, 2004.

– ENIAC project initiation at University of Pennsylvania and electronic calculation planning

  –  Example: J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly beginning ENIAC construction for ballistics calculations

  –  Source: McCartney, Scott. “ENIAC: The Triumphs and Tragedies of the World’s First Computer.” New York: Walker Books, 1999.

– Electronic calculation system design and large-scale computational architecture

  –  Example: ENIAC design specifications calling for 18,000 vacuum tubes and 70,000 resistors

  –  Source: Burks, Arthur W., Herman H. Goldstine, and John von Neumann. “Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument.” Princeton: Institute for Advanced Study, 1946.

– Mechanical-electronic computer integration and hybrid calculation systems

  –  Example: Bell Labs Model V relay computer integrating 9,000 relays with electronic controls

  –  Source: Stibitz, George R. “Early Computers.” In “A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century,” edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and G.-C. Rota, 479-483. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

  1944 

– Harvard Mark I operational calculation and astronomical computation applications

  –  Example: Computing Bessel functions and producing mathematical tables for scientific research

  –  Source: Aiken, Howard H., and Grace M. Hopper. “The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator.” Electrical Engineering 65, no. 8-9 (1946): 384-391, 449-454.

– British Colossus Mark II development and enhanced cryptographic capabilities

  –  Example: Improved Colossus with 2,500 valves processing 5,000 characters per second

  –  Source: Flowers, Tommy H. “The Design of Colossus.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 5, no. 3 (1983): 239-252.

– ENIAC construction advancement and electronic component integration

  –  Example: Installation of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, and 10,000 capacitors

  –  Source: Goldstine, Herman H., and Adele Goldstine. “The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC).” Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation 2 (1946): 97-110.

– Electronic calculation system testing and computational accuracy verification

  –  Example: ENIAC test calculations achieving 5,000 additions and 357 multiplications per second

  –  Source: Eckert, J. Presper Jr. “The ENIAC.” In “A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century,” edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and G.-C. Rota, 525-540. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

– Large-scale calculation project expansion and systematic computational applications

  –  Example: Multiple wartime calculation projects using electronic computers for ballistics and nuclear research

  –  Source: Aspray, William. “John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990.

  1945 

– John von Neumann’s stored program concept development and computer architecture theory

  –  Example: “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC” outlining stored-program computer architecture

  –  Source: von Neumann, John. “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC.” Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 1945.

– ENIAC completion and electronic calculation demonstration

  –  Example: First successful test calculating 30-second artillery trajectory in 20 seconds

  –  Source: Burks, Arthur W., and Alice R. Burks. “The ENIAC: First General-Purpose Electronic Computer.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 3, no. 4 (1981): 310-399.

– Electronic discrete variable automatic computer (EDVAC) design and stored program implementation

  –  Example: Eckert and Mauchly’s design for first binary stored-program computer with mercury delay lines

  –  Source: Stern, Nancy. “From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers.” Bedford: Digital Press, 1981.

– Von Neumann architecture principles and systematic computer design methodology

  –  Example: Stored program concept with data and instructions in same memory using binary representation

  –  Source: Aspray, William. “The Stored Program Concept.” IEEE Spectrum 27, no. 9 (1990): 51-52.

– Electronic calculation system optimization and computational efficiency improvements

  –  Example: ENIAC function table modifications reducing setup time from days to hours

  –  Source: Goldstine, Herman H. “The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann.” Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972.

  1946 

– ENIAC public demonstration and electronic calculation capability display

  –  Example: Public unveiling computing ballistic trajectory in 30 seconds versus 20 hours manually

  –  Source: “Electronic Computer Flashes Answers.” New York Times, February 15, 1946.

– University of Pennsylvania electronic computer research expansion and systematic development

  –  Example: Moore School Lectures attended by computer pioneers from around the world

  –  Source: Stern, Nancy, and Robert A. Stern. “Computers in Society.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983.

– Williams tube development and electronic memory storage systems

  –  Example: Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn’s cathode ray tube memory storing 2,048 bits

  –  Source: Williams, F.C., and T. Kilburn. “Electronic Digital Computers.” Nature 162 (1948): 487.

– Electronic calculation system commercial potential and systematic application planning

  –  Example: Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation formation for commercial computer development

  –  Source: Flamm, Kenneth. “Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1988.

– Computer programming concept development and systematic calculation procedures

  –  Example: Betty Holberton and Kay McNulty developing first programming techniques for ENIAC

  –  Source: Snyder, Betty. “Programming the ENIAC.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 4, no. 1 (1982): 25-30.

  1947 

– EDVAC construction advancement and stored program implementation

  –  Example: Construction of first stored-program computer with 44 mercury delay line memory tanks

  –  Source: Weik, Martin H. “The EDVAC.” In “A Third Survey of Domestic Electronic Digital Computing Systems,” 41-46. Aberdeen: Ballistic Research Laboratory, 1961.

– Electronic calculation system improvement and computational accuracy enhancement

  –  Example: Improved vacuum tube reliability extending mean time between failures

  –  Source: Rajchman, Jan A. “Early Research on Computer Memory at RCA.” In “A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century,” edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and G.-C. Rota, 465-471. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

– Computer memory system development and information storage optimization

  –  Example: Williams tube memory development storing 1,024 bits with electronic refresh

  –  Source: Kilburn, Tom, et al. “The University of Manchester Computing Machine.” In “Faster Than Thought,” edited by B.V. Bowden, 117-129. London: Pitman, 1953.

– Electronic calculation commercial applications and systematic computational services

  –  Example: Commercial calculation services using electronic computers for scientific research

  –  Source: Berkeley, Edmund C. “Giant Brains or Machines That Think.” New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1949.

– Programming language concept development and systematic calculation instructions

  –  Example: Kathleen Ollerenshaw’s Short Code development for automatic programming

  –  Source: Knuth, Donald E., and Luis Trabb Pardo. “Early Development of Programming Languages.” In “Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology,” Vol. 7, edited by Jack Belzer, Albert G. Holzman, and Allen Kent, 419-493. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1977.

  1948 

– Manchester Baby completion and stored program computer demonstration

  –  Example: Small-Scale Experimental Machine executing first stored program on June 21, 1948

  –  Source: Lavington, Simon H. “A History of Manchester Computers.” Manchester: NCC Publications, 1980.

– Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) completion and commercial calculation

  –  Example: IBM’s large-scale calculator with 12,500 vacuum tubes and 21,400 electromechanical relays

  –  Source: Bashe, Charles J., et al. “IBM’s Early Computers.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986.

– EDVAC completion and stored program operational deployment

  –  Example: First operational stored-program computer beginning calculations at Aberdeen Proving Ground

  –  Source: Huskey, Harry D. “The Development of Automatic Computing.” In “Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery,” 31-41. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949.

– Electronic calculation system standardization and computational procedure optimization

  –  Example: Development of standardized programming techniques and calculation procedures

  –  Source: Wilkes, Maurice V. “Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer.” Cambridge: Addison-Wesley, 1951.

– Computer programming systematic development and calculation instruction standardization

  –  Example: David Wheeler’s development of subroutines and closed subroutine concept

  –  Source: Wheeler, David J. “Programme Organization and Initial Orders for the EDSAC.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A 202 (1950): 573-589.

  1949 

– EDVAC operational deployment and stored program calculation demonstration

  –  Example: EDVAC performing ballistics calculations and nuclear weapon design computations

  –  Source: Weik, Martin H. “A Survey of Domestic Electronic Digital Computing Systems.” Aberdeen: Ballistic Research Laboratory, 1955.

– Electronic calculation system commercial expansion and systematic computational services

  –  Example: Computer Research Corporation and other companies offering electronic calculation services

  –  Source: Yates, JoAnne. “Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use.” Business and Economic History 22, no. 1 (1993): 1-36.

– Computer programming language development and systematic instruction procedures

  –  Example: Development of assembly languages and automatic programming systems

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Electronic memory system improvement and information storage optimization

  –  Example: Mercury delay line memory systems storing 1,024 32-bit words

  –  Source: Wilkinson, J.H. “Turing’s Work at the National Physical Laboratory and the Construction of Pilot ACE, DEUCE, and ACE.” In “A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century,” edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and G.-C. Rota, 101-114. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

– Computational mathematics advancement and electronic calculation method development

  –  Example: John von Neumann’s numerical analysis techniques for electronic computer implementation

  –  Source: Todd, John. “A Survey of Numerical Analysis.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.

    First Generation Computers (1950s)

  1950 

– National Bureau of Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) completion

  –  Example: Samuel Alexander’s SEAC using 747 vacuum tubes as first operational stored-program computer in US

  –  Source: Shemer, Joel E. “The SEAC.” In “A Third Survey of Domestic Electronic Digital Computing Systems,” 85-94. Aberdeen: Ballistic Research Laboratory, 1961.

– Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC) development and computational research

  –  Example: Harry Huskey’s SWAC at UCLA using Williams tube memory achieving 16,000 operations per second

  –  Source: Huskey, Harry D. “The SWAC: The National Bureau of Standards Western Automatic Computer.” In “A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century,” edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and G.-C. Rota, 419-431. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

– Electronic calculation system commercial production planning and systematic manufacturing

  –  Example: Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation planning UNIVAC I production with Remington Rand

  –  Source: Stern, Nancy. “From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers.” Bedford: Digital Press, 1981.

– Computer programming systematic development and calculation procedure standardization

  –  Example: Maurice Wilkes’ development of Initial Orders and subroutine library for EDSAC

  –  Source: Wilkes, Maurice V., D.J. Wheeler, and S. Gill. “The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer.” Cambridge: Addison-Wesley, 1951.

– Electronic memory system commercial development and storage technology advancement

  –  Example: Freddie Williams’ cathode ray tube memory commercialization for stored-program computers

  –  Source: Lavington, Simon H. “Early British Computers.” Bedford: Digital Press, 1980.

  1951 

– UNIVAC I completion and commercial electronic calculation demonstration

  –  Example: UNIVAC I correctly predicting Eisenhower’s presidential election victory on live television

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “A History of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

– Electronic calculation system commercial production and systematic manufacturing

  –  Example: Remington Rand’s systematic production of UNIVAC I computers for government and business

  –  Source: Flamm, Kenneth. “Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1988.

– Computer programming commercial development and systematic calculation applications

  –  Example: Grace Hopper’s A-0 System compiler development for automatic programming

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Electronic memory system commercial deployment and storage technology implementation

  –  Example: UNIVAC I using mercury delay lines storing 1,000 12-character words

  –  Source: Stern, Nancy. “From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers.” Bedford: Digital Press, 1981.

– Computational services commercial establishment and systematic calculation offerings

  –  Example: Computer Research Corporation offering electronic computer services to multiple clients

  –  Source: Fishman, Katharine Davis. “The Computer Establishment.” New York: Harper & Row, 1981.

  1952 

– IBM 701 completion and commercial scientific computation

  –  Example: IBM’s Defense Calculator for scientific and engineering calculations using 4,000 vacuum tubes

  –  Source: Bashe, Charles J., et al. “IBM’s Early Computers.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986.

– Electronic calculation system market expansion and systematic commercial development

  –  Example: Burroughs, IBM, and Remington Rand competing in emerging computer market

  –  Source: Flamm, Kenneth. “Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1988.

– Computer programming commercial applications and systematic calculation services

  –  Example: John Backus beginning FORTRAN development for scientific programming at IBM

  –  Source: Backus, John. “The History of Fortran I, II, and III.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 1 (1979): 21-37.

– Electronic memory system commercial improvement and storage technology optimization

  –  Example: IBM 701 using Williams tube memory with improved reliability and access speed

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– Scientific computation commercial services and systematic research applications

  –  Example: Los Alamos National Laboratory using IBM 701 for nuclear weapon calculations

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “A History of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

  1953 

– IBM 650 development and commercial calculation system

  –  Example: Frank Hamilton’s IBM 650 magnetic drum computer for business data processing

  –  Source: IBM Corporation. “IBM 650 Data Processing Machine.” IBM, 1955.

– Electronic calculation system commercial standardization and systematic manufacturing

  –  Example: IBM’s plug-compatible system approach enabling standardized computer manufacturing

  –  Source: Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. “Inventing the Electronic Century: The Epic Story of the Consumer Electronics and Computer Industries.” New York: Free Press, 2001.

– Computer programming commercial expansion and systematic application development

  –  Example: Regional Assembly Program (RAP) development for IBM 650 business applications

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Electronic memory system commercial optimization and storage technology improvement

  –  Example: Magnetic drum memory providing 2,000 10-digit word storage with average access time

  –  Source: Stevens, Louis D. “The evolution of magnetic storage.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 25, no. 5 (1981): 663-675.

– Commercial computation services and systematic calculation applications

  –  Example: Service Bureau Corporation offering IBM 650 computing services to businesses

  –  Source: Cortada, James W. “The Digital Hand: How Computers Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

  1954 

– IBM 704 development and floating-point arithmetic implementation

  –  Example: Gene Amdahl’s IBM 704 design with built-in floating-point arithmetic unit

  –  Source: IBM Corporation. “IBM 704 Electronic Data-Processing Machine.” IBM, 1955.

– Electronic calculation system commercial advancement and systematic computational capabilities

  –  Example: IBM 704 providing 40,000 operations per second for scientific applications

  –  Source: Akera, Atsushi. “Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers, and Computers During the Rise of U.S. Cold War Research.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007.

– Computer programming commercial systematization and application development

  –  Example: FORTRAN development team expanding programming language capabilities

  –  Source: Backus, John. “The History of Fortran I, II, and III.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 1 (1979): 21-37.

– Electronic memory system commercial improvement and storage technology advancement

  –  Example: IBM 704 magnetic core memory providing 4,096 36-bit word storage

  –  Source: Forrester, Jay W. “Digital Information Storage in Three Dimensions Using Magnetic Cores.” Journal of Applied Physics 22, no. 1 (1951): 44-48.

– Scientific computation commercial expansion and systematic research applications

  –  Example: Weather prediction and nuclear research using IBM 704 computational capabilities

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “Computing: A Concise History.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012.

  1955 

– Magnetic core memory development and reliable computer storage systems

  –  Example: An Wang and Way-Dong Woo’s magnetic core memory providing non-volatile storage

  –  Source: Wang, An, and Way-Dong Woo. “Static Magnetic Storage and Delay Line.” Journal of Applied Physics 21, no. 1 (1950): 49-54.

– Electronic calculation system memory improvement and systematic storage implementation

  –  Example: Magnetic core memory replacing unreliable Williams tube and mercury delay line systems

  –  Source: Forrester, Jay W. “Digital Information Storage in Three Dimensions Using Magnetic Cores.” Journal of Applied Physics 22, no. 1 (1951): 44-48.

– Computer programming commercial development and systematic application expansion

  –  Example: IT (Internal Translator) programming system for IBM 650 business applications

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Electronic memory system commercial deployment and storage technology standardization

  –  Example: Standardized magnetic core memory systems across multiple computer manufacturers

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– Commercial computation systematic expansion and calculation service development

  –  Example: Computer service bureaus expanding to serve multiple industries and applications

  –  Source: Haigh, Thomas. “Automation to Augmentation: Computing, Business Process, and Labor.” In “Uncovering Labour in Information Revolutions, 1750-2000,” edited by Aad Blok and Greg Downey, 149-173. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

  1956 

– IBM 305 RAMAC development and magnetic disk storage systems

  –  Example: Reynold Johnson’s Random Access Method of Accounting and Control with 50 24-inch disks

  –  Source: Johnson, Reynold B. “The Magnetic Disk Storage Unit.” In “IBM Journal of Research and Development,” 1, no. 1 (1957): 92-98.

– Electronic calculation system storage advancement and systematic information management

  –  Example: RAMAC providing 5 million characters of randomly accessible storage

  –  Source: Stevens, Louis D. “The evolution of magnetic storage.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 25, no. 5 (1981): 663-675.

– Computer programming commercial systematization and application standardization

  –  Example: FORTRAN Monitor System providing standardized programming environment

  –  Source: Backus, John. “The History of Fortran I, II, and III.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 1 (1979): 21-37.

– Electronic memory system commercial optimization and storage technology improvement

  –  Example: Enhanced magnetic core memory with 6-microsecond cycle time

  –  Source: Kilburn, Tom, et al. “One-Level Storage System.” IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers EC-11, no. 2 (1962): 223-235.

– Commercial computation service expansion and systematic calculation applications

  –  Example: Automated inventory management and accounting systems using RAMAC technology

  –  Source: Cortada, James W. “The Digital Hand: How Computers Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

  1957 

– FORTRAN programming language development and scientific computation

  –  Example: John Backus and IBM team completing FORmula TRANslation language for IBM 704

  –  Source: Backus, John. “The History of Fortran I, II, and III.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 1 (1979): 21-37.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic application development

  –  Example: FORTRAN enabling complex mathematical calculations in meteorology and engineering

  –  Source: Wexelblat, Richard L., ed. “History of Programming Languages.” New York: Academic Press, 1981.

– Computer programming commercial standardization and systematic development

  –  Example: FORTRAN becoming standard programming language for scientific computing

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Electronic memory system commercial improvement and storage technology optimization

  –  Example: Magnetic core memory systems with improved speed and reliability

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– Scientific computation programming and systematic calculation application development

  –  Example: Weather Bureau using FORTRAN for numerical weather prediction models

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “A History of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

  1958 

– SAGE system completion and real-time computer operation

  –  Example: Semi-Automatic Ground Environment using AN/FSQ-7 computers for air defense

  –  Source: Jacobs, Frank. “The SAGE System’s Computer Development.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 5, no. 4 (1983): 332-339.

– Integrated circuit development and electronic component miniaturization

  –  Example: Jack Kilby’s first integrated circuit at Texas Instruments using germanium

  –  Source: Kilby, Jack S. “Invention of the Integrated Circuit.” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices ED-23, no. 7 (1976): 648-654.

– Electronic calculation system real-time applications and systematic operational deployment

  –  Example: SAGE processing radar data in real-time for continental air defense

  –  Source: Everett, Robert R. “Whirlwind.” In “A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century,” edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and G.-C. Rota, 365-384. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

– Computer programming real-time development and systematic application implementation

  –  Example: Real-time programming techniques for SAGE radar tracking and interception

  –  Source: Kent, Allen, and James G. Williams, eds. “Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology.” New York: Marcel Dekker, 1975.

– Electronic component miniaturization and systematic circuit integration

  –  Example: Integration of transistors, resistors, and capacitors on single semiconductor substrate

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

  1959 

– Planar process development and integrated circuit manufacturing

  –  Example: Robert Noyce’s planar process at Fairchild Semiconductor enabling IC mass production

  –  Source: Noyce, Robert N. “Microelectronics.” Scientific American 237, no. 3 (1977): 63-69.

– Electronic calculation system component advancement and systematic miniaturization

  –  Example: Miniaturized electronic components enabling smaller, more powerful computers

  –  Source: Moore, Gordon E. “Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits.” Electronics 38, no. 8 (1965): 114-117.

– Computer programming systematic advancement and application development

  –  Example: John McCarthy’s LISP programming language for artificial intelligence research

  –  Source: McCarthy, John. “Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine.” Communications of the ACM 3, no. 4 (1960): 184-195.

– Electronic memory system improvement and storage technology advancement

  –  Example: Transistorized memory systems replacing vacuum tube memory in second-generation computers

  –  Source: Kilburn, Tom, et al. “One-Level Storage System.” IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers EC-11, no. 2 (1962): 223-235.

– Integrated circuit commercial development and systematic electronic component production

  –  Example: Fairchild Semiconductor’s commercial production of integrated circuits for computer applications

  –  Source: Tilton, John E. “International Diffusion of Technology: The Case of Semiconductors.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1971.

    Second Generation Computers (1960s)

  1960 

– PDP-1 development and minicomputer introduction

  –  Example: Digital Equipment Corporation’s Ben Gurley designing first interactive computer with CRT display

  –  Source: Bell, C. Gordon, and Allen Newell. “Computer Structures: Readings and Examples.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

– Electronic calculation system miniaturization and systematic commercial development

  –  Example: Transistorized computers replacing vacuum tube systems for scientific applications

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “Minicomputers and the Rise of the Computer Industry.” In “A History of Modern Computing,” 125-152. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

– Computer programming systematic advancement and application expansion

  –  Example: Fernando Corbató’s Compatible Time-Sharing System development at MIT

  –  Source: Corbató, Fernando J., et al. “An Introduction to the Compatible Time-Sharing System.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference,” 185-202. Baltimore: Spartan Books, 1962.

– Electronic memory system commercial improvement and storage technology optimization

  –  Example: Transistorized memory systems with improved speed and reduced power consumption

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– Minicomputer commercial development and systematic calculation applications

  –  Example: DEC PDP-1 priced at  $120,000 for scientific research and real-time applications

  –  Source: Rifkin, Glenn, and George Harrar. “The Ultimate Entrepreneur: The Story of Ken Olsen and Digital Equipment Corporation.” Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1988.

  1961 

– IBM 1401 commercial deployment and business data processing

  –  Example: IBM’s transistorized 1401 becoming most popular business computer with 12,000 installations

  –  Source: Fisher, Franklin M., James W. McKie, and Richard B. Mancke. “IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry.” New York: Praeger, 1983.

– Electronic calculation system commercial standardization and systematic business applications

  –  Example: Standardized business data processing systems for payroll, inventory, and accounting

  –  Source: Cortada, James W. “The Digital Hand: How Computers Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

– Computer programming commercial development and systematic business application implementation

  –  Example: COBOL programming language development by Grace Hopper and CODASYL committee

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “The Early History of COBOL.” In “History of Programming Languages,” edited by Richard L. Wexelblat, 199-243. New York: Academic Press, 1981.

– Electronic memory system commercial optimization and storage technology improvement

  –  Example: Magnetic core memory systems optimized for business computing with 16,000 character capacity

  –  Source: Forrester, Jay W. “Digital Information Storage in Three Dimensions Using Magnetic Cores.” Journal of Applied Physics 22, no. 1 (1951): 44-48.

– Business data processing systematic development and commercial calculation applications

  –  Example: Automated payroll systems processing thousands of employee records

  –  Source: Yates, JoAnne. “Structuring the Information Age: Life Insurance and Technology in the Twentieth Century.” Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

  1962 

– Atlas computer development and virtual memory implementation

  –  Example: Tom Kilburn’s Atlas computer at University of Manchester with first virtual memory system

  –  Source: Kilburn, Tom, et al. “One-Level Storage System.” IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers EC-11, no. 2 (1962): 223-235.

– Electronic calculation system memory advancement and systematic storage management

  –  Example: Virtual memory allowing programs larger than physical memory using drum storage

  –  Source: Denning, Peter J. “Virtual Memory.” Computing Surveys 2, no. 3 (1970): 153-189.

– Computer programming systematic development and application optimization

  –  Example: Advanced programming techniques for efficient virtual memory utilization

  –  Source: Wilkes, Maurice V. “Time-sharing Computer Systems.” New York: American Elsevier, 1968.

– Electronic memory system commercial improvement and storage technology advancement

  –  Example: Hierarchical memory systems combining magnetic core and drum storage

  –  Source: Mattson, Richard L., et al. “Evaluation Techniques for Storage Hierarchies.” IBM Systems Journal 9, no. 2 (1970): 78-117.

– Virtual memory commercial development and systematic information management

  –  Example: Automatic paging systems managing memory allocation for multiple programs

  –  Source: Fotheringham, John. “Dynamic Storage Allocation in the Atlas Computer, Including an Automatic Use of a Backing Store.” Communications of the ACM 4, no. 10 (1961): 435-436.

  1963 

– DEC PDP-6 development and time-sharing system implementation

  –  Example: Digital Equipment Corporation’s 36-bit computer enabling multiple simultaneous users

  –  Source: Bell, C. Gordon, and Allen Newell. “Computer Structures: Readings and Examples.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

– Electronic calculation system time-sharing advancement and systematic multi-user operation

  –  Example: Time-sharing systems allowing 30+ users to access computer simultaneously

  –  Source: Corbató, Fernando J., and Victor A. Vyssotsky. “Introduction and Overview of the Multics System.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference,” 185-196. Baltimore: Spartan Books, 1965.

– Computer programming time-sharing development and systematic application implementation

  –  Example: Interactive BASIC programming language for time-sharing systems

  –  Source: Fano, Robert M., and Fernando J. Corbató. “Time-Sharing on Computers.” Scientific American 215, no. 3 (1966): 128-140.

– Electronic memory system commercial optimization and storage technology improvement

  –  Example: Memory protection and allocation systems for multi-user environments

  –  Source: Dennis, Jack B. “Segmentation and the Design of Multiprogrammed Computer Systems.” Journal of the ACM 12, no. 4 (1965): 589-602.

– Time-sharing system commercial development and systematic multi-user applications

  –  Example: Commercial time-sharing services by Bolt, Beranek and Newman

  –  Source: Parkhill, Douglas F. “The Challenge of the Computer Utility.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1966.

  1964 

– IBM System/360 introduction and computer family standardization

  –  Example: Gene Amdahl’s System/360 architecture with 8-bit bytes and compatible instruction set

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– BASIC programming language development and systematic programming education

  –  Example: John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz’s BASIC for Dartmouth Time-Sharing System

  –  Source: Kemeny, John G., and Thomas E. Kurtz. “Dartmouth Time-Sharing.” Science 162, no. 3850 (1968): 223-228.

– Electronic calculation system commercial standardization and systematic family development

  –  Example: Compatible computer family from Model 30 to Model 75 with same instruction set

  –  Source: Fisher, Franklin M., James W. McKie, and Richard B. Mancke. “IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry.” New York: Praeger, 1983.

– Computer programming educational development and systematic instruction implementation

  –  Example: BASIC designed for student use with simple English-like commands

  –  Source: Kurtz, Thomas E. “BASIC.” In “History of Programming Languages,” edited by Richard L. Wexelblat, 515-549. New York: Academic Press, 1981.

– Commercial computer family systematic development and calculation application standardization

  –  Example: Software compatibility across System/360 models enabling economies of scale

  –  Source: Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. “Inventing the Electronic Century: The Epic Story of the Consumer Electronics and Computer Industries.” New York: Free Press, 2001.

  1965 

– PDP-8 introduction and successful minicomputer commercialization

  –  Example: Digital Equipment Corporation’s 12-bit minicomputer priced at  $18,000

  –  Source: Bell, C. Gordon, et al. “The Evolution of the DEC System-10.” Communications of the ACM 21, no. 1 (1978): 44-63.

– Electronic calculation system miniaturization commercial success and systematic market development

  –  Example: Over 50,000 PDP-8 computers sold creating minicomputer market

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “Minicomputers and the Rise of the Computer Industry.” In “A History of Modern Computing,” 125-152. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

– Computer programming minicomputer development and systematic application implementation

  –  Example: PAL-8 assembler and FOCAL programming language for PDP-8

  –  Source: Rifkin, Glenn, and George Harrar. “The Ultimate Entrepreneur: The Story of Ken Olsen and Digital Equipment Corporation.” Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1988.

– Electronic memory system minicomputer optimization and storage technology improvement

  –  Example: Magnetic core memory systems optimized for minicomputer cost constraints

  –  Source: Bell, C. Gordon, and Allen Newell. “Computer Structures: Readings and Examples.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

– Minicomputer commercial success and systematic calculation application expansion

  –  Example: Minicomputers used in process control, laboratory automation, and real-time applications

  –  Source: Flamm, Kenneth. “Targeting the Computer: Government Support and International Competition.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1987.

  1966 

– Electronic calculation system commercial expansion and systematic application development

  –  Example: Computer installations growing from 5,000 to 30,000 systems worldwide

  –  Source: Cortada, James W. “The Digital Hand: How Computers Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

– Computer programming commercial standardization and systematic development

  –  Example: ANSI standardization of COBOL and FORTRAN programming languages

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Electronic memory system commercial improvement and storage technology advancement

  –  Example: Semiconductor memory development complementing magnetic core systems

  –  Source: Kilburn, Tom, et al. “One-Level Storage System.” IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers EC-11, no. 2 (1962): 223-235.

– Commercial computation systematic expansion and calculation service development

  –  Example: Service bureaus like Computer Sciences Corporation expanding nationwide

  –  Source: Haigh, Thomas. “Software in the 1960s as Concept, Service, and Product.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 24, no. 1 (2002): 5-13.

– Computer system commercial integration and systematic application implementation

  –  Example: Integrated business systems combining inventory, accounting, and payroll

  –  Source: Yates, JoAnne. “Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use.” Business and Economic History 22, no. 1 (1993): 1-36.

  1967 

– Dynamic RAM development and computer memory advancement

  –  Example: Robert Dennard’s one-transistor DRAM cell invention at IBM

  –  Source: Dennard, Robert H. “Field-Effect Transistor Memory.” U.S. Patent 3,387,286, filed February 8, 1967.

– Electronic calculation system memory improvement and systematic storage enhancement

  –  Example: DRAM providing 4x higher density than magnetic core memory

  –  Source: Dennard, Robert H., et al. “Design of Ion-Implanted MOSFET’s with Very Small Physical Dimensions.” IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits SC-9, no. 5 (1974): 256-268.

– Computer programming systematic development and application optimization

  –  Example: Structured programming techniques developed by Edsger Dijkstra

  –  Source: Dijkstra, Edsger W. “The Structure of the ‘THE’-Multiprogramming System.” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 5 (1968): 341-346.

– Electronic memory system commercial advancement and storage technology improvement

  –  Example: Transition from magnetic core to semiconductor memory beginning

  –  Source: Mack, Chris. “Fifty Years of Moore’s Law.” IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing 24, no. 2 (2011): 202-207.

– Computer memory commercial development and systematic storage applications

  –  Example: Semiconductor memory arrays for high-speed computer applications

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

  1968 

– Computer mouse demonstration and human-computer interaction

  –  Example: Douglas Engelbart’s “Mother of All Demos” at Stanford Research Institute

  –  Source: Engelbart, Douglas C. “Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework.” Stanford Research Institute, 1962.

– ARPANET proposal and network computer communication

  –  Example: Larry Roberts’ ARPANET proposal for packet-switched network

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G. “The ARPANET and Computer Networks.” In “A History of Personal Workstations,” edited by Adele Goldberg, 141-172. New York: ACM Press, 1988.

– Electronic calculation system interaction advancement and systematic user interface development

  –  Example: Interactive computer interfaces with mouse, keyboard, and display

  –  Source: Engelbart, Douglas C., and William K. English. “A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference,” 395-410. Washington: Thompson Book Company, 1968.

– Computer programming systematic development and application enhancement

  –  Example: Interactive programming environments and real-time software development

  –  Source: Licklider, J.C.R. “Man-Computer Symbiosis.” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE-1 (1960): 4-11.

– Network communication systematic development and computer interconnection planning

  –  Example: ARPA funding for computer network research at multiple universities

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

  1969 

– ARPANET implementation and network computer operation

  –  Example: First ARPANET connection between UCLA and Stanford Research Institute

  –  Source: Abbate, Janet. “Inventing the Internet.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.

– UNIX operating system development and systematic computer operation

  –  Example: Ken Thompson’s UNIX development on PDP-7 at Bell Labs

  –  Source: Ritchie, Dennis M., and Ken Thompson. “The UNIX Time-Sharing System.” Communications of the ACM 17, no. 7 (1974): 365-375.

– Electronic calculation system network development and systematic communication implementation

  –  Example: Interface Message Processors connecting computers via 50 kbit/s phone lines

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G., and Barry D. Wessler. “Computer Network Development to Achieve Resource Sharing.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 543-549. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Computer programming systematic advancement and application development

  –  Example: Network Control Protocol development for ARPANET communication

  –  Source: Crocker, Steve, et al. “Host Software.” RFC 1, April 7, 1969.

– Network computer operation and systematic communication system development

  –  Example: Four-node ARPANET connecting UCLA, SRI, UCSB, and University of Utah

  –  Source: Heart, Frank E., et al. “The Interface Message Processor for the ARPA Computer Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 551-567. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

    Third Generation Computer Development (1970-1971)

  1970 

– Pascal programming language development and systematic programming methodology

  –  Example: Niklaus Wirth’s Pascal emphasizing structured programming and data types

  –  Source: Wirth, Niklaus. “The Programming Language Pascal.” Acta Informatica 1, no. 1 (1971): 35-63.

– Software unbundling and independent software development

  –  Example: IBM’s unbundling decision creating independent software industry

  –  Source: Fisher, Franklin M., John J. McGowan, and Joen E. Greenwood. “Folded, Spindled, and Mutilated: Economic Analysis and U.S. v. IBM.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic structured application development

  –  Example: Structured programming reducing software complexity and improving reliability

  –  Source: Dijkstra, Edsger W. “Notes on Structured Programming.” In “Structured Programming,” edited by O.-J. Dahl, E.W. Dijkstra, and C.A.R. Hoare, 1-82. London: Academic Press, 1972.

– Computer programming structured development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Top-down design methodology and modular programming techniques

  –  Source: Wirth, Niklaus. “Program Development by Stepwise Refinement.” Communications of the ACM 14, no. 4 (1971): 221-227.

– Programming language systematic structured development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Block-structured languages supporting modular software development

  –  Source: Hoare, C.A.R. “The Emperor’s Old Clothes.” Communications of the ACM 24, no. 2 (1981): 75-83.

  1971 

– Intel 4004 microprocessor introduction and systematic miniaturization achievement

  –  Example: Ted Hoff’s 4-bit microprocessor with 2,300 transistors for Busicom calculator

  –  Source: Hoff, Marcian E., Jr. “The History of Microprocessor Development at Intel.” IEEE Micro 1, no. 1 (1981): 8-21.

– Floppy disk development and portable computer storage

  –  Example: IBM’s 8-inch floppy disk storing 80 kilobytes of data

  –  Source: Stevens, Louis D. “The evolution of magnetic storage.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 25, no. 5 (1981): 663-675.

– Email system development and network communication

  –  Example: Ray Tomlinson’s first network email message using @ symbol

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

– Electronic calculation system miniaturization breakthrough and systematic component integration

  –  Example: Complete CPU functionality integrated on single silicon chip

  –  Source: Noyce, Robert N., and Marcian E. Hoff Jr. “A History of Microprocessor Development at Intel.” IEEE Micro 1, no. 1 (1981): 8-21.

– Computer storage systematic advancement and portable information management

  –  Example: Removable floppy disks enabling software distribution and data backup

  –  Source: IBM Corporation. “IBM System/370 Model 155 Disk Operating System: Introduction.” IBM, 1972.

   Telecommunications

    Telegraph and Early Communication Systems (1940s)

  1940 

– Transatlantic telegraph system improvement and systematic international communication

  –  Example: Improved submarine cable reliability using gutta-percha insulation

  –  Source: Appleyard, Rollo. “The History of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1939.

– Telegraph network expansion and systematic communication infrastructure development

  –  Example: Western Union’s 200,000-mile telegraph network expansion

  –  Source: Thompson, Robert Luther. “Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832-1866.” Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947.

– Telegraph technology advancement and systematic signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: Improved relay systems increasing transmission speed to 60 words per minute

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– International telegraph coordination and systematic communication standardization

  –  Example: International Telegraph Union standardizing Morse code and operating procedures

  –  Source: Codding, George A., Jr. “The International Telecommunication Union: An Experiment in International Cooperation.” Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1952.

– Telegraph commercial development and systematic communication service expansion

  –  Example: Western Union processing 20 million messages annually

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

  1941 

– Telegraph system wartime expansion and systematic military communication

  –  Example: Military telegraph networks supporting D-Day invasion coordination

  –  Source: Singh, Simon. “The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography.” New York: Doubleday, 1999.

– Telegraph network systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Hardened telegraph lines for military communication security

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph technology military applications and systematic secure communication

  –  Example: Five-letter code groups for encrypted military telegrams

  –  Source: Kahn, David. “The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet.” New York: Scribner, 1996.

– International telegraph wartime coordination and systematic communication management

  –  Example: Allied telegraph network coordination through Combined Communications Board

  –  Source: Headrick, Daniel R. “The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics 1851-1945.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

– Telegraph commercial wartime development and systematic communication service provision

  –  Example: Priority messaging systems for war production coordination

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

  1942 

– Telegraph system systematic enhancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Automatic relay systems reducing transmission errors

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph network wartime optimization and systematic communication efficiency

  –  Example: Message routing optimization for wartime traffic management

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– Telegraph technology advancement and systematic signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: Improved regenerative repeaters extending transmission distance

  –  Source: Appleyard, Rollo. “The History of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1939.

– International telegraph systematic coordination and communication infrastructure integration

  –  Example: Integrated Allied telegraph networks for strategic coordination

  –  Source: Headrick, Daniel R. “The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics 1851-1945.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

– Telegraph commercial systematic development and communication service enhancement

  –  Example: Deferred telegram services for non-urgent commercial communication

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

  1943 

– Telegraph system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure optimization

  –  Example: Teleprinter networks replacing manual Morse code transmission

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph network improvement and systematic communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Multiplex systems carrying multiple messages on single wire

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– Telegraph technology systematic development and signal transmission advancement

  –  Example: Frequency-division multiplexing for increased channel capacity

  –  Source: Appleyard, Rollo. “The History of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1939.

– International telegraph coordination improvement and systematic communication integration

  –  Example: International direct circuits bypassing multiple relay stations

  –  Source: Codding, George A., Jr. “The International Telecommunication Union: An Experiment in International Cooperation.” Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1952.

– Telegraph commercial development and systematic communication service expansion

  –  Example: Money transfer services via telegraph for international commerce

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

  1944 

– Telegraph system systematic optimization and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Automatic switching systems reducing manual operator intervention

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph network systematic enhancement and communication capability improvement

  –  Example: Error detection and correction systems improving message accuracy

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– Telegraph technology advancement and systematic signal transmission optimization

  –  Example: Improved carrier systems for long-distance transmission

  –  Source: Appleyard, Rollo. “The History of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1939.

– International telegraph systematic improvement and communication infrastructure coordination

  –  Example: Post-war planning for international telegraph network reconstruction

  –  Source: Headrick, Daniel R. “The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics 1851-1945.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

– Telegraph commercial systematic development and communication service enhancement

  –  Example: Telex services for direct business-to-business communication

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

  1945 

– Telegraph system post-war reconstruction and systematic communication infrastructure restoration

  –  Example: Rebuilding of European telegraph networks after wartime damage

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph network systematic rebuilding and communication capability restoration

  –  Example: International telegraph service restoration to pre-war levels

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– Telegraph technology systematic improvement and signal transmission enhancement

  –  Example: Transistorized telegraph equipment replacing vacuum tube systems

  –  Source: Appleyard, Rollo. “The History of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1939.

– International telegraph post-war coordination and systematic communication infrastructure integration

  –  Example: United Nations coordination of international telegraph standards

  –  Source: Codding, George A., Jr. “The International Telecommunication Union: An Experiment in International Cooperation.” Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1952.

– Telegraph commercial post-war development and systematic communication service restoration

  –  Example: Civilian telegraph services resuming normal commercial operations

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

  1946 

– Mobile Telephone Service (MTS) introduction and mobile communication beginning

  –  Example: Bell System’s first commercial mobile service in St. Louis with 3 channels

  –  Source: Young, Peter. “Person to Person: The International Impact of the Telephone.” Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1991.

– Telegraph system commercial development and systematic communication service expansion

  –  Example: Facsimile telegraph services for document transmission

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph network systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Microwave relay systems supplementing wire telegraph networks

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– Mobile communication systematic development and wireless telephone service introduction

  –  Example: 150 MHz mobile radio telephone service in major cities

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Telegraph technology commercial advancement and systematic signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: Improved telegraph equipment with automatic error correction

  –  Source: Appleyard, Rollo. “The History of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1939.

  1947 

– Microwave relay system development and long-distance communication

  –  Example: Bell System’s TD-2 microwave system carrying 480 telephone channels

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “The Beginnings of Satellite Communications.” San Francisco: San Francisco Press, 1968.

– Telegraph system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Integration of telegraph and telephone networks for efficiency

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Stored program control systems for automatic message routing

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– Microwave communication systematic development and long-distance signal transmission

  –  Example: 4 GHz microwave systems spanning 200-mile distances

  –  Source: Roden, Martin S. “Introduction to Communication Systems.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1991.

– Telegraph commercial systematic development and communication service enhancement

  –  Example: International telegram services resuming pre-war volume

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

  1948 

– Coaxial cable network development and high-capacity communication

  –  Example: Bell System’s L1 coaxial cable system carrying 600 telephone channels

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telegraph system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Telegraph-telephone integration for unified communication networks

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph network systematic optimization and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Automatic message switching systems reducing delivery time

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– Coaxial cable systematic development and high-capacity signal transmission

  –  Example: L1 coaxial cable system providing 600 simultaneous telephone conversations

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “Signals: The Science of Telecommunications.” New York: Scientific American Library, 1990.

– Telegraph commercial systematic development and communication service enhancement

  –  Example: Telex networks enabling direct business communication

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

  1949 

– Point-to-point microwave development and direct wireless communication

  –  Example: Raytheon’s microwave relay systems spanning 30-mile distances

  –  Source: Roden, Martin S. “Introduction to Communication Systems.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1991.

– Telegraph system systematic enhancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Transistorized telegraph equipment replacing vacuum tube systems

  –  Source: Beauchamp, Ken. “History of Telegraphy.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.

– Telegraph network systematic advancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Message concentration systems improving network efficiency

  –  Source: Standage, Tom. “The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers.” New York: Walker Books, 1998.

– Microwave communication systematic expansion and wireless signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: 6 GHz microwave systems with improved reliability and capacity

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “The Beginnings of Satellite Communications.” San Francisco: San Francisco Press, 1968.

– Telegraph commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: International direct telegraph circuits bypassing intermediate operators

  –  Source: John, Richard R. “Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.

    Telephone System Development (1950s)

  1950 

– Coaxial cable television development and systematic broadcast transmission

  –  Example: Community Antenna Television systems using coaxial cable distribution

  –  Source: Baldwin, Thomas F., and D. Stevens McVoy. “Cable Communication.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983.

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: No. 5 Crossbar switching system automation reducing operator intervention

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Long distance dialing without operator assistance

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

– Television broadcast systematic development and coaxial signal transmission

  –  Example: Coaxial cable networks carrying multiple TV channels simultaneously

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Rural telephone service expansion using improved switching systems

  –  Source: Fischer, Claude S. “America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

  1951 

– Direct Distance Dialing introduction and automated telephone system

  –  Example: First DDD call from Englewood, New Jersey to Alameda, California

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

– Telephone system automation advancement and systematic communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Panel switching systems processing 10,000 calls per hour automatically

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone network systematic optimization and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Automatic number identification for direct distance dialing

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Automated telephone systematic development and direct dialing service implementation

  –  Example: Crossbar switching systems enabling subscriber dialing

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service automation

  –  Example: Reduced operator workforce through automated switching systems

  –  Source: Lipartito, Kenneth. “The Bell System and Regional Business.” Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.

  1952 

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: L3 coaxial cable system carrying 1,860 telephone channels

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “Signals: The Science of Telecommunications.” New York: Scientific American Library, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Improved long-distance transmission quality using repeater amplifiers

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone technology systematic development and signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: Frequency division multiplexing systems increasing channel capacity

  –  Source: Roden, Martin S. “Introduction to Communication Systems.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1991.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Suburban telephone service expansion in post-war housing developments

  –  Source: Fischer, Claude S. “America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

– International telephone systematic coordination and communication infrastructure integration

  –  Example: Trans-Atlantic telephone cable planning for international service

  –  Source: Codding, George A., Jr., and Anthony M. Rutkowski. “The International Telecommunication Union in a Changing World.” Dedham: Artech House, 1982.

  1953 

– Telephone system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Electronic switching system development at Bell Laboratories

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic optimization and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Traffic engineering systems optimizing call routing

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone technology systematic improvement and signal transmission advancement

  –  Example: Improved microwave relay systems for long-distance transmission

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “The Beginnings of Satellite Communications.” San Francisco: San Francisco Press, 1968.

– Telephone commercial systematic development and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Extension telephone service enabling multiple phones per household

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

– Telephone infrastructure systematic advancement and communication capability improvement

  –  Example: Underground cable systems protecting telephone lines from weather

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

  1954 

– Telephone system systematic enhancement and communication infrastructure optimization

  –  Example: No. 5 Crossbar system installation in major cities

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic improvement and communication capability advancement

  –  Example: Automatic alternate routing for busy or failed circuits

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone technology systematic development and signal transmission enhancement

  –  Example: TD-2 microwave system expansion across continental United States

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “Signals: The Science of Telecommunications.” New York: Scientific American Library, 1990.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service improvement

  –  Example: Party line service reduction as individual lines become affordable

  –  Source: Fischer, Claude S. “America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

– Telephone infrastructure systematic development and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Rural electrification enabling telephone service expansion

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

  1955 

– Tropospheric scatter communication development and long-distance radio transmission

  –  Example: ACE HIGH tropospheric scatter system for NATO communications

  –  Source: Roden, Martin S. “Introduction to Communication Systems.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1991.

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Card translator systems for automated call routing

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Common control switching systems improving call handling efficiency

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Radio communication systematic development and long-distance signal transmission

  –  Example: Tropospheric propagation enabling 200-mile radio links

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “The Beginnings of Satellite Communications.” San Francisco: San Francisco Press, 1968.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Direct inward dialing for business telephone systems

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

  1956 

– Transatlantic Telephone Cable (TAT-1) completion and international telephone service

  –  Example: First transatlantic telephone cable providing 36 voice channels

  –  Source: Burns, Russell W. “Communications: An International History of the Formative Years.” London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2004.

– Telephone system international advancement and systematic communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Submarine cable technology enabling reliable international calling

  –  Source: Bright, Charles. “Submarine Telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working.” London: Crosby Lockwood, 1898.

– Telephone network systematic international enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: International switching centers for transatlantic call routing

  –  Source: Codding, George A., Jr., and Anthony M. Rutkowski. “The International Telecommunication Union in a Changing World.” Dedham: Artech House, 1982.

– International telephone systematic development and transatlantic communication service

  –  Example:  $12 for 3-minute call from New York to London

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

– Telephone commercial systematic international advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: International business calling enabling global commerce

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

  1957 

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: L4 coaxial cable system carrying 3,600 telephone channels

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “Signals: The Science of Telecommunications.” New York: Scientific American Library, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Electronic switching system prototypes at Morris, Illinois

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone technology systematic development and signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: Pulse code modulation development for digital transmission

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Private branch exchange systems for business customers

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

– Telephone infrastructure systematic improvement and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Hardened telephone systems for civil defense communications

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

  1958 

– Telephone system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Electronic switching system field trials beginning

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic optimization and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Stored program control systems for call processing

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone technology systematic improvement and signal transmission advancement

  –  Example: TH microwave system providing 11,000 telephone channels

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “Signals: The Science of Telecommunications.” New York: Scientific American Library, 1990.

– Telephone commercial systematic development and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Data transmission services over telephone networks

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

– Telephone infrastructure systematic advancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Centralized maintenance systems for network monitoring

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

  1959 

– Mobile radiotelephone expansion and systematic mobile communication development

  –  Example: Improved Mobile Telephone Service expanding to 100+ cities

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Telephone system systematic enhancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Crossbar tandem switching systems for long-distance calls

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic advancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Traffic service position systems for operator assistance

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Mobile communication systematic development and wireless telephone service expansion

  –  Example: Mobile telephone service reaching 200,000 subscribers

  –  Source: Young, Peter. “Person to Person: The International Impact of the Telephone.” Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1991.

– Telephone commercial systematic improvement and communication service enhancement

  –  Example: Touch-tone service development for faster dialing

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

    Advanced Telecommunications (1960s)

  1960 

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Electronic switching system commercial deployment planning

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Automatic message accounting for detailed billing

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone technology systematic development and signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: L5 coaxial cable system carrying 13,200 telephone channels

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “Signals: The Science of Telecommunications.” New York: Scientific American Library, 1990.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Wide Area Telephone Service (WATS) for business customers

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

– Telephone infrastructure systematic improvement and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Buried cable systems protecting lines from weather damage

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

  1961 

– Telephone system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: No. 1 Electronic Switching System development completion

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic optimization and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Centralized automatic message accounting systems

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone technology systematic improvement and signal transmission advancement

  –  Example: Waveguide transmission development for millimeter waves

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “Signals: The Science of Telecommunications.” New York: Scientific American Library, 1990.

– Telephone commercial systematic development and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Foreign exchange service connecting distant locations

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

– Telephone infrastructure systematic advancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Digital transmission development for improved quality

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

  1962 

– Telstar satellite launch and commercial satellite communication

  –  Example: First commercial communications satellite providing transatlantic TV and telephone

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “The Beginnings of Satellite Communications.” San Francisco: San Francisco Press, 1968.

– T1 carrier system development and digital telephone transmission

  –  Example: T1 system carrying 24 digital voice channels at 1.544 Mbps

  –  Source: Bellamy, John. “Digital Telephony.” New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982.

– Telephone system satellite advancement and systematic communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Ground stations at Andover, Maine and Pleumeur-Bodou, France

  –  Source: Martin, James. “Communications Satellite Systems.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1978.

– Telephone network systematic digital enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Pulse code modulation for digital voice transmission

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Satellite communication systematic development and space-based signal transmission

  –  Example: Active satellite repeater amplifying and retransmitting signals

  –  Source: Evans, John V. “Satellite Communication Systems.” London: Peter Peregrinus, 1987.

  1963 

– Touch-Tone dialing introduction and push-button telephone system

  –  Example: Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling replacing rotary dialing

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Electronic switching system commercial deployment in Succasunna, New Jersey

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Automatic call distribution systems for large organizations

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

– Touch-tone systematic development and push-button telephone service implementation

  –  Example: DTMF tones enabling faster dialing and computer interaction

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Custom calling services including call waiting and three-way calling

  –  Source: Lipartito, Kenneth. “The Bell System and Regional Business.” Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.

  1964 

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: No. 2 Electronic Switching System development for local service

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic optimization and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Common channel signaling systems for network control

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone technology systematic development and signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: Waveguide development for high-capacity transmission

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “Signals: The Science of Telecommunications.” New York: Scientific American Library, 1990.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Centrex service providing PBX features from central office

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

– Telephone infrastructure systematic improvement and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Emergency services automation including 911 systems

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

  1965 

– Electronic Switching System (ESS) introduction and computer-controlled telephone exchanges

  –  Example: No. 1 ESS commercial service beginning in Succasunna, New Jersey

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Early Bird/Intelsat I launch and geostationary commercial satellite

  –  Example: First commercial geostationary satellite providing continuous transatlantic service

  –  Source: Martin, James. “Communications Satellite Systems.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1978.

– Telephone system systematic electronic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Stored program control enabling flexible call processing

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone network systematic computer enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Computer-controlled switching reducing call setup time

  –  Source: Joel, Amos E. Jr. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Switching Technology.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1982.

– Electronic switching systematic development and computer-controlled telephone service

  –  Example: Real-time call processing using stored program computers

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

  1966 

– Fiber optic theory development and low-loss optical communication

  –  Example: Charles Kao’s theoretical work on low-loss optical fibers

  –  Source: Kao, Charles K., and George A. Hockham. “Dielectric-fibre surface waveguides for optical frequencies.” Proceedings of the IEE 113, no. 7 (1966): 1151-1158.

– Telephone system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: No. 4 Electronic Switching System for toll switching

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Network management systems for traffic monitoring

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Fiber optic systematic development and optical signal transmission theory

  –  Example: Optical fiber attenuation reduction to 20 dB/km

  –  Source: Hecht, Jeff. “City of Light: The Story of Fiber Optics.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Data communications services over telephone networks

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

  1967 

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Electronic switching system expansion to suburban areas

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic optimization and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Advanced mobile phone system development beginning

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Telephone technology systematic development and signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: Digital transmission systems development for improved quality

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Telephone commercial systematic advancement and communication service expansion

  –  Example: Computer inquiry services accessible by telephone

  –  Source: Brooks, John. “Telephone: The First Hundred Years.” New York: Harper & Row, 1976.

– Telephone infrastructure systematic improvement and communication capability enhancement

  –  Example: Integrated services digital network (ISDN) concept development

  –  Source: Brock, Gerald W. “The Second Information Revolution.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.

  1968 

– Cellular concept development and mobile telephone network theory

  –  Example: Bell Labs’ cellular system concept with frequency reuse

  –  Source: Young, William R. “Advanced Mobile Phone Service: Introduction, Background, and Objectives.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 1-14.

– Telephone system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: No. 3 Electronic Switching System for rural applications

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Traffic service position system automation

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Cellular communication systematic development and mobile telephone network planning

  –  Example: Hexagonal cell pattern for frequency reuse optimization

  –  Source: MacDonald, V.H. “The Cellular Concept.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 15-41.

– Mobile telephone systematic advancement and cellular service theoretical development

  –  Example: 666 MHz cellular spectrum allocation proposal

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

  1969 

– ARPANET implementation and packet-switched network communication

  –  Example: First ARPANET message “LOGIN” sent from UCLA to Stanford

  –  Source: Abbate, Janet. “Inventing the Internet.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Electronic switching system deployment accelerating

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Digital transmission development for network modernization

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Packet switching systematic development and network communication implementation

  –  Example: Interface Message Processors (IMPs) routing data packets

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G., and Barry D. Wessler. “Computer Network Development to Achieve Resource Sharing.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 543-549. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Network communication systematic advancement and computer interconnection service

  –  Example: Network Control Protocol (NCP) for host-to-host communication

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

    Telecommunications Integration (1970-1971)

  1970 

– Fiber optic development and low-loss optical communication

  –  Example: Corning Glass Works achieving 17 dB/km optical fiber

  –  Source: Hecht, Jeff. “City of Light: The Story of Fiber Optics.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

– Telephone system systematic advancement and communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: No. 1A Electronic Switching System with enhanced features

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Telephone network systematic enhancement and communication capability optimization

  –  Example: Common channel interoffice signaling (CCIS) implementation

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communications Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1984.

– Fiber optic systematic development and optical signal transmission improvement

  –  Example: Single-mode optical fiber development for long-distance transmission

  –  Source: Kao, Charles K. “A Choice Path: My Journey from a Chinese Village to Nobel Prize.” Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2009.

– Optical communication systematic advancement and fiber optic transmission development

  –  Example: Optical communication systems demonstrating feasibility

  –  Source: Miller, Stewart E., and Alan G. Chynoweth, eds. “Optical Fiber Telecommunications.” New York: Academic Press, 1979.

  1971 

– Email protocol development and network messaging systems

  –  Example: Ray Tomlinson’s first network email using @ symbol

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

– Cellular system proposal and FCC cellular spectrum allocation

  –  Example: Bell System’s Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) proposal

  –  Source: Young, William R. “Advanced Mobile Phone Service: Introduction, Background, and Objectives.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 1-14.

– Telephone system systematic improvement and communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Electronic switching system installations exceeding 1,000 offices

  –  Source: Chapuis, Robert J., and Amos E. Joel Jr. “Electronics, Computers and Telephone Switching.” Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990.

– Network messaging systematic development and electronic mail service implementation

  –  Example: SNDMSG program enabling network message transmission

  –  Source: Tomlinson, Ray. “The First Network Email.” 1971.

– Cellular communication systematic advancement and mobile telephone network planning

  –  Example: 666 MHz and 825-845 MHz spectrum bands proposed for cellular service

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

   Software Development

    Programming Language Development (1940s-1950s)

  1949 

– Assembly language development and systematic programming instruction

  –  Example: Short Code developed by John Mauchly for BINAC computer

  –  Source: Knuth, Donald E., and Luis Trabb Pardo. “Early Development of Programming Languages.” In “Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology,” Vol. 7, edited by Jack Belzer, Albert G. Holzman, and Allen Kent, 419-493. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1977.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic instruction development

  –  Example: Subroutine libraries developed for EDSAC at Cambridge University

  –  Source: Wheeler, David J., Maurice V. Wilkes, and Stanley Gill. “The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer.” Cambridge: Addison-Wesley, 1951.

– Computer programming systematic development and calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Initial Orders system providing basic computer operations

  –  Source: Wilkes, Maurice V. “Memoirs of a Computer Pioneer.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985.

– Programming language systematic development and computer instruction standardization

  –  Example: Interpretive routines enabling automatic program execution

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Electronic computer programming and systematic calculation instruction advancement

  –  Example: Debugging techniques developed for stored-program computers

  –  Source: Goldstine, Herman H. “The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann.” Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972.

  1952 

– Compiler theory development and systematic programming automation

  –  Example: Grace Hopper’s A-0 System compiler for UNIVAC I

  –  Source: Hopper, Grace M. “The Education of a Computer.” In “Proceedings of the Association for Computing Machinery,” 243-249. Pittsburgh: ACM, 1952.

– A-0 System development and automatic programming implementation

  –  Example: First compiler translating mathematical notation into machine code

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic automation development

  –  Example: Automatic coding systems reducing programming time

  –  Source: Backus, John. “The History of Fortran I, II, and III.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 1 (1979): 21-37.

– Computer programming systematic automation and calculation instruction optimization

  –  Example: Mathematical notation directly translated to machine operations

  –  Source: Wexelblat, Richard L., ed. “History of Programming Languages.” New York: Academic Press, 1981.

– Programming language systematic development and automated programming implementation

  –  Example: Subroutine libraries enabling code reuse and modularity

  –  Source: Knuth, Donald E. “The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1968.

  1954 

– FORTRAN development beginning and scientific programming language

  –  Example: John Backus leading IBM team developing FORmula TRANslation

  –  Source: Backus, John. “The History of Fortran I, II, and III.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 1 (1979): 21-37.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic scientific application development

  –  Example: High-level language enabling complex mathematical calculations

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “A History of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

– Computer programming scientific development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Mathematical formulas expressed in algebraic notation

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

– Programming language systematic scientific development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Automatic translation of mathematical expressions to machine code

  –  Source: Wexelblat, Richard L., ed. “History of Programming Languages.” New York: Academic Press, 1981.

– Scientific programming systematic advancement and computer calculation instruction development

  –  Example: Scientific computing applications in weather prediction and nuclear research

  –  Source: Akera, Atsushi. “Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers, and Computers During the Rise of U.S. Cold War Research.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007.

  1957 

– FORTRAN completion and systematic scientific programming implementation

  –  Example: FORTRAN I compiler operational on IBM 704 computer

  –  Source: Backus, John. “The History of Fortran I, II, and III.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 1 (1979): 21-37.

– Electronic calculation system programming deployment and systematic scientific application

  –  Example: Scientific programming enabling complex calculations in hours vs. weeks

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “A History of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

– Computer programming scientific implementation and systematic calculation instruction deployment

  –  Example: Weather forecasting models using FORTRAN programming

  –  Source: Harper, Kristine C. “Weather by the Numbers: The Genesis of Modern Meteorology.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2008.

– Programming language systematic scientific deployment and calculation application implementation

  –  Example: Nuclear weapon design calculations using FORTRAN programs

  –  Source: Gusterson, Hugh. “Nuclear Rites: A Weapons Laboratory at the End of the Cold War.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.

– Scientific programming systematic deployment and computer calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Engineering analysis programs for aircraft and spacecraft design

  –  Source: Mindell, David A. “Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2008.

  1958 

– LISP development and artificial intelligence programming

  –  Example: John McCarthy’s LISt Processing language for AI research at MIT

  –  Source: McCarthy, John. “Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine.” Communications of the ACM 3, no. 4 (1960): 184-195.

– ALGOL development and algorithmic programming language

  –  Example: International committee developing ALGOrithmic Language for scientific computing

  –  Source: Perlis, Alan J., and Klaus Samelson. “Preliminary Report: International Algebraic Language.” Communications of the ACM 1, no. 12 (1958): 8-22.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic AI application development

  –  Example: Symbolic computation enabling artificial intelligence research

  –  Source: McCorduck, Pamela. “Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence.” San Francisco: W .H. Freeman, 1979.

– Computer programming AI development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: List processing operations for symbolic manipulation

  –  Source: Berkeley, Edmund C., and Daniel G. Bobrow, eds. “The Programming Language LISP: Its Operation and Applications.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1964.

– Programming language systematic AI development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Recursive function definitions enabling complex AI algorithms

  –  Source: Winston, Patrick Henry, and Berthold Klaus Paul Horn. “LISP.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1989.

  1959 

– COBOL development and business-oriented programming language

  –  Example: Grace Hopper leading CODASYL committee developing COmmon Business Oriented Language

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “The Early History of COBOL.” In “History of Programming Languages,” edited by Richard L. Wexelblat, 199-243. New York: Academic Press, 1981.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic business application development

  –  Example: English-like programming language for business data processing

  –  Source: Yates, JoAnne. “Structuring the Information Age: Life Insurance and Technology in the Twentieth Century.” Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

– Computer programming business development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: File processing and report generation for business applications

  –  Source: Cortada, James W. “The Digital Hand: How Computers Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

– Programming language systematic business development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Standardized business programming reducing development time

  –  Source: Haigh, Thomas. “Software in the 1960s as Concept, Service, and Product.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 24, no. 1 (2002): 5-13.

– Business programming systematic advancement and computer calculation instruction development

  –  Example: Payroll and inventory systems using COBOL programming

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “A History of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

    Operating System Development (1960s)

  1960 

– ALGOL 60 completion and systematic algorithmic programming

  –  Example: International standard for algorithmic language with block structure

  –  Source: Naur, Peter, et al. “Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 60.” Communications of the ACM 3, no. 5 (1960): 299-314.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic algorithmic application development

  –  Example: Structured programming with nested procedures and local variables

  –  Source: Dijkstra, Edsger W. “Recursive Programming.” Numerische Mathematik 2, no. 1 (1960): 312-318.

– Computer programming algorithmic development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Mathematical algorithms expressed in structured programming language

  –  Source: Knuth, Donald E. “The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1968.

– Programming language systematic algorithmic development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Call-by-name parameter passing and lexical scoping

  –  Source: Wirth, Niklaus. “The Programming Language Pascal.” Acta Informatica 1, no. 1 (1971): 35-63.

– Algorithmic programming systematic advancement and computer calculation instruction development

  –  Example: Recursive procedures and dynamic array declarations

  –  Source: Hoare, C.A.R. “The Emperor’s Old Clothes.” Communications of the ACM 24, no. 2 (1981): 75-83.

  1961 

– Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) development and multi-user computing

  –  Example: Fernando Corbató’s CTSS at MIT enabling 30 simultaneous users

  –  Source: Corbató, Fernando J., Marjorie Merwin-Daggett, and Robert C. Daley. “An Introduction to the Compatible Time-Sharing System.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference,” 185-202. Baltimore: Spartan Books, 1962.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic multi-user application development

  –  Example: Time-sharing enabling interactive computing and program development

  –  Source: Fano, Robert M., and Fernando J. Corbató. “Time-Sharing on Computers.” Scientific American 215, no. 3 (1966): 128-140.

– Computer programming multi-user development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Interactive programming with immediate feedback and debugging

  –  Source: Licklider, J.C.R. “Man-Computer Symbiosis.” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE-1 (1960): 4-11.

– Operating system systematic development and multi-user calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Process scheduling and memory management for multiple users

  –  Source: Dennis, Jack B., and Earl C. Van Horn. “Programming Semantics for Multiprogrammed Computations.” Communications of the ACM 9, no. 3 (1966): 143-155.

– Time-sharing programming systematic advancement and computer calculation instruction development

  –  Example: Command language and file system for interactive computing

  –  Source: Crisman, Pat A., ed. “The Compatible Time-Sharing System: A Programmer’s Guide.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965.

  1962 

– Operating system systematic development and computer resource management

  –  Example: Atlas Supervisor managing virtual memory and job scheduling

  –  Source: Kilburn, Tom, et al. “One-Level Storage System.” IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers EC-11, no. 2 (1962): 223-235.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic resource management development

  –  Example: Automatic memory allocation and program loading

  –  Source: Denning, Peter J. “Virtual Memory.” Computing Surveys 2, no. 3 (1970): 153-189.

– Computer programming resource management development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Priority scheduling and resource allocation algorithms

  –  Source: Coffman, Edward G., Jr., and Peter J. Denning. “Operating Systems Theory.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

– Operating system systematic resource management and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Dynamic loading and memory protection mechanisms

  –  Source: Fotheringham, John. “Dynamic Storage Allocation in the Atlas Computer, Including an Automatic Use of a Backing Store.” Communications of the ACM 4, no. 10 (1961): 435-436.

– System programming systematic advancement and computer calculation instruction development

  –  Example: System calls and interrupt handling for operating system services

  –  Source: Shaw, Alan C. “The Logical Design of Operating Systems.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1974.

  1963 

– Operating system advancement and systematic computer resource optimization

  –  Example: Burroughs MCP (Master Control Program) for B5000 computer

  –  Source: Organick, Elliott I. “Computer System Organization: The B5700/B6700 Series.” New York: Academic Press, 1973.

– Electronic calculation system programming improvement and systematic resource management enhancement

  –  Example: Stack-based architecture with automatic memory management

  –  Source: Hauck, E.A., and Ben A. Dent. “Burroughs’ B6500/B7500 Stack Mechanism.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 245-251. Baltimore: AFIPS Press, 1968.

– Computer programming resource optimization and systematic calculation instruction advancement

  –  Example: High-level language support integrated into operating system

  –  Source: McKeeman, William M., James J. Horning, and David B. Wortman. “A Compiler Generator.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1970.

– Operating system systematic improvement and calculation application enhancement

  –  Example: Virtual memory management with demand paging

  –  Source: Denning, Peter J. “The Working Set Model for Program Behavior.” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 5 (1968): 323-333.

– System programming systematic advancement and computer calculation instruction improvement

  –  Example: Multiprogramming with automatic job scheduling

  –  Source: Coffman, Edward G., Jr., and Peter J. Denning. “Operating Systems Theory.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

  1964 

– BASIC programming language development and educational computing

  –  Example: John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz’s BASIC for Dartmouth Time-Sharing System

  –  Source: Kemeny, John G., and Thomas E. Kurtz. “Dartmouth Time-Sharing.” Science 162, no. 3850 (1968): 223-228.

– Operating System/360 development and systematic computer resource management

  –  Example: IBM OS/360 supporting multiple programming languages and applications

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic educational application development

  –  Example: Interactive programming language designed for student use

  –  Source: Kurtz, Thomas E. “BASIC.” In “History of Programming Languages,” edited by Richard L. Wexelblat, 515-549. New York: Academic Press, 1981.

– Computer programming educational development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Simple English-like commands enabling easy learning

  –  Source: Kemeny, John G. “A Library for This and Every Computer.” In “Proceedings of the Second ACM Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation,” 150-156. New York: ACM, 1971.

– Programming language systematic educational development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Time-sharing system enabling multiple students to program simultaneously

  –  Source: Fano, Robert M., and Fernando J. Corbató. “Time-Sharing on Computers.” Scientific American 215, no. 3 (1966): 128-140.

  1965 

– PL/I development and general-purpose programming language

  –  Example: IBM’s Programming Language One combining FORTRAN, COBOL, and ALGOL features

  –  Source: Rosen, Saul, ed. “Programming Systems and Languages.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.

– Time-sharing system advancement and systematic multi-user computing

  –  Example: Project MAC at MIT developing advanced time-sharing capabilities

  –  Source: Corbató, Fernando J., and Victor A. Vyssotsky. “Introduction and Overview of the Multics System.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference,” 185-196. Baltimore: Spartan Books, 1965.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic general-purpose application development

  –  Example: Unified programming language for scientific and business applications

  –  Source: Conway, Richard W., and William L. Maxwell. “CORC: The Cornell Computing Language.” Communications of the ACM 6, no. 6 (1963): 317-321.

– Computer programming general-purpose development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Block structure and dynamic storage allocation

  –  Source: Steel, T.B., Jr. “A First Version of UNCOL.” In “Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference,” 371-378. Los Angeles: IRE, 1961.

– Programming language systematic general-purpose development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Exception handling and multitasking capabilities

  –  Source: Sammet, Jean E. “Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.

  1966 

– Operating system systematic advancement and computer resource management improvement

  –  Example: Multics development at MIT, Bell Labs, and General Electric

  –  Source: Organick, Elliott I. “The Multics System: An Examination of Its Structure.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1972.

– Electronic calculation system programming improvement and systematic resource management enhancement

  –  Example: Segmented virtual memory with paging and protection

  –  Source: Daley, Robert C., and Jack B. Dennis. “Virtual Memory, Processes, and Sharing in MULTICS.” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 5 (1968): 306-312.

– Computer programming resource management advancement and systematic calculation instruction improvement

  –  Example: Dynamic linking and hierarchical file system

  –  Source: Ritchie, Dennis M., and Ken Thompson. “The UNIX Time-Sharing System.” Communications of the ACM 17, no. 7 (1974): 365-375.

– Operating system systematic improvement and calculation application enhancement

  –  Example: Command processor with programmable shell capabilities

  –  Source: Van Vleck, Tom. “The IBM 360/67 and CP-67.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 27, no. 3 (2005): 21-36.

– System programming systematic advancement and computer calculation instruction improvement

  –  Example: Inter-process communication and shared memory segments

  –  Source: Dennis, Jack B. “Segmentation and the Design of Multiprogrammed Computer Systems.” Journal of the ACM 12, no. 4 (1965): 589-602.

  1967 

– SIMULA development and object-oriented programming introduction

  –  Example: Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard’s SIMULA 67 with classes and objects

  –  Source: Dahl, Ole-Johan, and Kristen Nygaard. “SIMULA: An ALGOL-based Simulation Language.” Communications of the ACM 9, no. 9 (1966): 671-678.

– Operating system advancement and systematic computer resource optimization

  –  Example: CP/CMS development for IBM System/360 Model 67

  –  Source: Creasy, Robert J. “The Origin of the VM/370 Time-sharing System.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 25, no. 5 (1981): 483-490.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic object-oriented application development

  –  Example: Class-based programming with inheritance and polymorphism

  –  Source: Holmevik, Jan Rune. “Compiling SIMULA: A Historical Study of Technological Genesis.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 16, no. 4 (1994): 25-37.

– Computer programming object-oriented development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Discrete event simulation using object-oriented programming

  –  Source: Birtwistle, Graham M., et al. “SIMULA BEGIN.” Philadelphia: Auerbach Publishers, 1973.

– Programming language systematic object-oriented development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Data abstraction and encapsulation principles

  –  Source: Parnas, David L. “On the Criteria To Be Used in Decomposing Systems into Modules.” Communications of the ACM 15, no. 12 (1972): 1053-1058.

  1968 

– Software engineering conference and systematic programming methodology

  –  Example: NATO Software Engineering Conference in Garmisch defining software crisis

  –  Source: Naur, Peter, and Brian Randell, eds. “Software Engineering: Report of a Conference Sponsored by the NATO Science Committee.” Brussels: NATO Scientific Affairs Division, 1969.

– Operating system systematic improvement and computer resource management advancement

  –  Example: THE multiprogramming system with layered architecture

  –  Source: Dijkstra, Edsger W. “The Structure of the ‘THE’-Multiprogramming System.” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 5 (1968): 341-346.

– Electronic calculation system programming methodology and systematic application development

  –  Example: Structured programming principles reducing software complexity

  –  Source: Dijkstra, Edsger W. “Go To Statement Considered Harmful.” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 3 (1968): 147-148.

– Computer programming methodology development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Top-down design and modular programming techniques

  –  Source: Wirth, Niklaus. “Program Development by Stepwise Refinement.” Communications of the ACM 14, no. 4 (1971): 221-227.

– Software engineering systematic development and programming methodology optimization

  –  Example: Software project management and quality assurance methods

  –  Source: Brooks, Frederick P., Jr. “The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1975.

  1969 

– UNIX operating system development and portable system implementation

  –  Example: Ken Thompson’s UNIX development on PDP-7 at Bell Labs

  –  Source: Ritchie, Dennis M., and Ken Thompson. “The UNIX Time-Sharing System.” Communications of the ACM 17, no. 7 (1974): 365-375.

– Operating system systematic advancement and computer portability development

  –  Example: Portable operating system written in high-level language

  –  Source: Ritchie, Dennis M. “The Evolution of the Unix Time-sharing System.” Bell System Technical Journal 63, no. 6 (1984): 1577-1593.

– Electronic calculation system programming portability and systematic application development

  –  Example: Simple, elegant design with powerful command-line interface

  –  Source: Salus, Peter H. “A Quarter Century of UNIX.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1994.

– Computer programming portability development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Hierarchical file system with unified device interface

  –  Source: Thompson, Ken. “UNIX Implementation.” Bell System Technical Journal 57, no. 6 (1978): 1931-1946.

– Operating system systematic portability development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Text processing tools and shell programming capabilities

  –  Source: Kernighan, Brian W., and Rob Pike. “The UNIX Programming Environment.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984.

    Advanced Software Development (1970-1971)

  1970 

– Pascal programming language development and structured programming

  –  Example: Niklaus Wirth’s Pascal emphasizing structured programming and data types

  –  Source: Wirth, Niklaus. “The Programming Language Pascal.” Acta Informatica 1, no. 1 (1971): 35-63.

– Software unbundling and independent software development

  –  Example: IBM’s unbundling decision creating independent software industry

  –  Source: Fisher, Franklin M., John J. McGowan, and Joen E. Greenwood. “Folded, Spindled, and Mutilated: Economic Analysis and U.S. v. IBM.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983.

– Electronic calculation system programming advancement and systematic structured application development

  –  Example: Block-structured language with strong typing and error checking

  –  Source: Jensen, Kathleen, and Niklaus Wirth. “Pascal User Manual and Report.” Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1974.

– Computer programming structured development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Structured programming eliminating goto statements

  –  Source: Dijkstra, Edsger W. “Notes on Structured Programming.” In “Structured Programming,” edited by O.-J. Dahl, E.W. Dijkstra, and C.A.R. Hoare, 1-82. London: Academic Press, 1972.

– Programming language systematic structured development and calculation application optimization

  –  Example: Modular programming with procedures and functions

  –  Source: Wirth, Niklaus. “Program Development by Stepwise Refinement.” Communications of the ACM 14, no. 4 (1971): 221-227.

  1971 

– Email software development and network messaging applications

  –  Example: Ray Tomlinson’s SNDMSG program for ARPANET email

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

– Software systematic advancement and network application development

  –  Example: Network file transfer programs and remote login capabilities

  –  Source: Crocker, Steve, et al. “Host Software.” RFC 1, April 7, 1969.

– Electronic calculation system programming network development and systematic communication application

  –  Example: Network protocols enabling distributed computing applications

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G., and Barry D. Wessler. “Computer Network Development to Achieve Resource Sharing.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 543-549. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Computer programming network development and systematic calculation instruction implementation

  –  Example: Remote job entry and distributed processing capabilities

  –  Source: Heart, Frank E., et al. “The Interface Message Processor for the ARPA Computer Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 551-567. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Network software systematic development and communication application optimization

  –  Example: Network debugging tools and performance monitoring software

  –  Source: Abbate, Janet. “Inventing the Internet.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.

   Networking and Internet

    Network Theory and Development (1940s-1950s)

  1948 

– Information theory development and systematic communication analysis

  –  Example: Claude Shannon’s “Mathematical Theory of Communication” establishing information theory

  –  Source: Shannon, Claude E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal 27 (1948): 379-423.

– Network communication theoretical development and systematic information transmission

  –  Example: Mathematical foundations for digital communication and error correction

  –  Source: Shannon, Claude E., and Warren Weaver. “The Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1949.

– Communication theory systematic development and information transfer optimization

  –  Example: Channel capacity calculations and optimal coding theory

  –  Source: Gallager, Robert G. “Information Theory and Reliable Communication.” New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1968.

– Network theory systematic advancement and communication system development

  –  Example: Statistical communication theory for noise analysis

  –  Source: Wiener, Norbert. “Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1948.

– Information transmission systematic development and communication efficiency optimization

  –  Example: Entropy measures and redundancy reduction techniques

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “An Introduction to Information Theory: Symbols, Signals and Noise.” New York: Dover Publications, 1961.

  1959 

– Packet switching theory development and distributed network communication

  –  Example: Paul Baran’s distributed network concept for survivable communications

  –  Source: Baran, Paul. “On Distributed Communications Networks.” IEEE Transactions on Communications Systems CS-12, no. 1 (1964): 1-9.

– Time-sharing concept development and multi-user computer systems

  –  Example: Christopher Strachey’s time-sharing concept for efficient computer utilization

  –  Source: Strachey, Christopher. “Time Sharing in Large Fast Computers.” In “Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Processing,” 336-341. Paris: UNESCO, 1959.

– Network communication systematic development and distributed information transmission

  –  Example: Hot-potato routing for message switching networks

  –  Source: Baran, Paul. “On Distributed Communications: Introduction to Distributed Communications Networks.” Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 1964.

– Computer network theoretical development and systematic multi-user communication

  –  Example: Compatible Time-Sharing System concept at MIT

  –  Source: McCarthy, John. “Reminiscences on the History of Time Sharing.” Stanford: Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, 1983.

– Network theory systematic advancement and distributed communication system development

  –  Example: Redundant network paths for fault tolerance

  –  Source: Davies, Donald W. “A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at Remote Terminals.” In “Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles,” 2.1-2.17. New York: ACM, 1967.

    Early Network Development (1960s)

  1962 

– ARPANET proposal and “Galactic Network” concept development

  –  Example: J.C.R. Licklider’s memorandum on “Galactic Network” connecting ARPA researchers

  –  Source: Licklider, J.C.R., and Welden E. Clark. “On-Line Man-Computer Communication.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 113-128. Baltimore: Spartan Books, 1962.

– Network communication systematic development and computer interconnection planning

  –  Example: Interactive computing and resource sharing between research centers

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

– Computer network theoretical development and systematic communication infrastructure

  –  Example: Time-sharing computers connected for resource sharing

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G. “The ARPANET and Computer Networks.” In “A History of Personal Workstations,” edited by Adele Goldberg, 141-172. New York: ACM Press, 1988.

– Network theory systematic advancement and computer communication system development

  –  Example: Distributed computing enabling collaborative research

  –  Source: Abbate, Janet. “Inventing the Internet.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.

– Network communication systematic planning and computer interconnection development

  –  Example: ARPA Information Processing Techniques Office planning network

  –  Source: Norberg, Arthur L., and Judy E. O’Neill. “Transforming Computer Technology: Information Processing for the Pentagon, 1962-1986.” Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

  1965 

– Packet switching implementation and first wide-area network connection

  –  Example: First wide-area network connection between MIT Lincoln Lab and System Development Corporation

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G., and Thomas Merrill. “Toward a Cooperative Network of Time-Shared Computers.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference,” 425-431. Baltimore: Spartan Books, 1966.

– Network communication systematic development and computer interconnection implementation

  –  Example: 1200 bps phone line connection demonstrating feasibility of computer networking

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

– Computer network practical development and systematic communication infrastructure

  –  Example: Terminal access to remote computers via telephone lines

  –  Source: Abbate, Janet. “Inventing the Internet.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.

– Packet switching systematic advancement and network communication development

  –  Example: Donald Davies’ packet switching development at National Physical Laboratory

  –  Source: Davies, Donald W. “A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at Remote Terminals.” In “Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles,” 2.1-2.17. New York: ACM, 1967.

– Network theory systematic implementation and computer communication system development

  –  Example: Store-and-forward message switching with packet fragmentation

  –  Source: Baran, Paul. “On Distributed Communications Networks.” IEEE Transactions on Communications Systems CS-12, no. 1 (1964): 1-9.

  1966 

– Network communication systematic advancement and computer interconnection improvement

  –  Example: ARPANET planning meetings and network topology design

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G. “The ARPANET and Computer Networks.” In “A History of Personal Workstations,” edited by Adele Goldberg, 141-172. New York: ACM Press, 1988.

– Computer network development and systematic communication infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: Network protocol development for computer-to-computer communication

  –  Source: Heart, Frank E., et al. “The Interface Message Processor for the ARPA Computer Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 551-567. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Packet switching systematic development and network communication optimization

  –  Example: NPL packet switching network development in United Kingdom

  –  Source: Scantlebury, Roger A., Peter T. Wilkinson, and Keith A. Bartlett. “The Design of a Message Switching Centre for a Digital Communication Network.” In “Proceedings of the IFIP Congress,” 497-502. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1968.

– Network theory systematic advancement and computer communication system improvement

  –  Example: Network congestion control and flow control mechanisms

  –  Source: Davies, Donald W., Keith A. Bartlett, Roger A. Scantlebury, and Peter T. Wilkinson. “A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at Remote Terminals.” In “Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles,” 2.1-2.17. New York: ACM, 1967.

– Network communication systematic planning and computer interconnection development

  –  Example: ARPANET Request for Proposal development for Interface Message Processors

  –  Source: Norberg, Arthur L., and Judy E. O’Neill. “Transforming Computer Technology: Information Processing for the Pentagon, 1962-1986.” Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

  1967 

– Network communication systematic improvement and computer interconnection advancement

  –  Example: ARPANET design specifications and IMP contract award to Bolt Beranek and Newman

  –  Source: Heart, Frank E., et al. “The Interface Message Processor for the ARPA Computer Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 551-567. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Computer network development and systematic communication infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Honeywell DDP-516 minicomputer selected as IMP hardware platform

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

– Packet switching systematic advancement and network communication development

  –  Example: Store-and-forward packet switching with error detection and recovery

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G., and Barry D. Wessler. “Computer Network Development to Achieve Resource Sharing.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 543-549. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Network theory systematic implementation and computer communication system development

  –  Example: Adaptive routing algorithms for dynamic network topology

  –  Source: McQuillan, John M. “Adaptive Routing Algorithms for Distributed Computer Networks.” Cambridge: Harvard University, 1974.

– Network communication systematic development and computer interconnection optimization

  –  Example: Network protocols for reliable data transmission over unreliable channels

  –  Source: Pouzin, Louis. “Virtual Circuits vs. Datagrams: Technical and Political Problems.” In “Proceedings of the National Computer Conference,” 483-494. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1976.

  1968 

– ARPANET development and systematic network implementation

  –  Example: Interface Message Processor development and network topology planning

  –  Source: Heart, Frank E., et al. “The Interface Message Processor for the ARPA Computer Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 551-567. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Network communication systematic advancement and computer interconnection implementation

  –  Example: Host-to-Host protocol development for computer communication

  –  Source: Crocker, Steve, et al. “Host Software.” RFC 1, April 7, 1969.

– Computer network implementation and systematic communication infrastructure development

  –  Example: Network Working Group formation for protocol standardization

  –  Source: Crocker, Steve. “How the Internet Got Its Rules.” The New York Times, April 6, 2009.

– Packet switching systematic implementation and network communication advancement

  –  Example: IMP software development for packet routing and switching

  –  Source: Ornstein, Severo M., et al. “The Terminal IMP for the ARPA Computer Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 243-254. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1972.

– Network theory systematic application and computer communication system implementation

  –  Example: Distributed network protocols enabling fault-tolerant communication

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G. “The Evolution of Packet Switching.” Proceedings of the IEEE 66, no. 11 (1978): 1307-1313.

  1969 

– ARPANET operational deployment and first network connections

  –  Example: First ARPANET node at UCLA on September 2, 1969

  –  Source: Kleinrock, Leonard. “The Day the Internet Age Began.” UCLA, 1999.

– Network communication systematic implementation and computer interconnection deployment

  –  Example: Four-node network connecting UCLA, Stanford, UCSB, and University of Utah

  –  Source: Abbate, Janet. “Inventing the Internet.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.

– Computer network operational deployment and systematic communication infrastructure implementation

  –  Example: Host-to-Host protocol enabling computer-to-computer communication

  –  Source: Crocker, Steve, et al. “Host Software.” RFC 1, April 7, 1969.

– Packet switching systematic deployment and network communication implementation

  –  Example: Interface Message Processors routing packets between network nodes

  –  Source: Heart, Frank E., et al. “The Interface Message Processor for the ARPA Computer Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 551-567. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Network theory systematic deployment and computer communication system implementation

  –  Example: Network Control Protocol (NCP) for reliable data transmission

  –  Source: Carr, C. Stephen, Stephen D. Crocker, and Vinton G. Cerf. “HOST-HOST Communication Protocol in the ARPA Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 589-597. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

    Network Protocol Development (1970-1971)

  1970 

– ARPANET expansion and systematic network growth

  –  Example: Network expansion to 15 nodes including MIT, Harvard, and Carnegie Mellon

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G. “The Evolution of Packet Switching.” Proceedings of the IEEE 66, no. 11 (1978): 1307-1313.

– Network communication systematic improvement and computer interconnection enhancement

  –  Example: Network Control Protocol implementation enabling reliable communication

  –  Source: Carr, C. Stephen, Stephen D. Crocker, and Vinton G. Cerf. “HOST-HOST Communication Protocol in the ARPA Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 589-597. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1970.

– Computer network systematic expansion and communication infrastructure development

  –  Example: Terminal Interface Message Processors connecting multiple terminals

  –  Source: Ornstein, Severo M., et al. “The Terminal IMP for the ARPA Computer Network.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference,” 243-254. Montvale: AFIPS Press, 1972.

– Packet switching systematic improvement and network communication optimization

  –  Example: Adaptive routing algorithms improving network performance

  –  Source: McQuillan, John M., Ira Richer, and Eric C. Rosen. “The New Routing Algorithm for the ARPANET.” IEEE Transactions on Communications COM-28, no. 5 (1980): 711-719.

– Network protocol systematic development and computer communication enhancement

  –  Example: File Transfer Protocol development for network file sharing

  –  Source: Postel, Jon, and Joyce Reynolds. “File Transfer Protocol (FTP).” RFC 959, October 1985.

  1971 

– Email system implementation and network messaging development

  –  Example: Ray Tomlinson’s first network email message using @ symbol addressing

  –  Source: Tomlinson, Ray. “The First Network Email.” BBN Technologies, 1971.

– Network communication systematic advancement and computer interconnection improvement

  –  Example: ARPANET reaching 23 nodes with coast-to-coast connectivity

  –  Source: Roberts, Lawrence G. “The Evolution of Packet Switching.” Proceedings of the IEEE 66, no. 11 (1978): 1307-1313.

– Computer network messaging development and systematic communication application

  –  Example: SNDMSG program modification for network message transmission

  –  Source: Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. “Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

– Network protocol systematic improvement and computer communication optimization

  –  Example: Request for Comments (RFC) system documenting network standards

  –  Source: Crocker, Steve. “The Origins of RFCs.” In “The Design of the Internet,” 35-42. London: Digital Press, 1991.

– Electronic messaging systematic development and network communication application

  –  Example: Electronic mail becoming primary ARPANET application

  –  Source: Abbate, Janet. “Inventing the Internet.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.

   Media Communications

    Television and Broadcasting (1940s-1950s)

  1946 

– Television broadcasting expansion and systematic commercial deployment

  –  Example: Post-war TV station growth from 6 to 48 stations by end of 1946

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network development and systematic broadcast infrastructure

  –  Example: NBC and CBS expanding television networks connecting major cities

  –  Source: Barnouw, Erik. “Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

– Broadcasting systematic advancement and television communication improvement

  –  Example: Coaxial cable and microwave relay systems enabling network broadcasting

  –  Source: Head, Sydney W., Christopher H. Sterling, and Lemuel B. Schofield. “Broadcasting in America: A Survey of Electronic Media.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

– Television commercial development and systematic entertainment programming

  –  Example: Commercial sponsorship model with single-sponsor programs

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– Media communication systematic development and television broadcast enhancement

  –  Example: Live television production from New York studios

  –  Source: Kisseloff, Jeff. “The Box: An Oral History of Television, 1920-1961.” New York: Viking, 1995.

  1947 

– Television broadcasting systematic improvement and commercial expansion

  –  Example: Television receiver production reaching 179,000 units

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic development and broadcast infrastructure advancement

  –  Example: East Coast television network connections via coaxial cable

  –  Source: Barnouw, Erik. “Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

– Broadcasting systematic enhancement and television communication optimization

  –  Example: Image orthicon camera improving television picture quality

  –  Source: Abramson, Albert. “The History of Television, 1942 to 2000.” Jefferson: McFarland, 2003.

– Television commercial systematic development and entertainment programming expansion

  –  Example: “Howdy Doody” and “Meet the Press” establishing television programming formats

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– Media communication systematic advancement and television broadcast improvement

  –  Example: Kinescope recording enabling program distribution and reruns

  –  Source: Kisseloff, Jeff. “The Box: An Oral History of Television, 1920-1961.” New York: Viking, 1995.

  1948 

– Coaxial cable television development and systematic broadcast transmission

  –  Example: Community Antenna Television (CATV) systems in Pennsylvania mountains

  –  Source: Baldwin, Thomas F., and D. Stevens McVoy. “Cable Communication.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983.

– Television broadcasting systematic expansion and commercial development

  –  Example: FCC freeze on new television station licenses due to interference problems

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic improvement and broadcast infrastructure development

  –  Example: Midwest television network connection via coaxial cable to East Coast

  –  Source: Barnouw, Erik. “Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

– Cable television systematic development and community broadcast enhancement

  –  Example: John Walson’s CATV system in Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania

  –  Source: Parsons, Patrick R. “Blue Skies: A History of Cable Television.” Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008.

– Broadcasting systematic advancement and television communication improvement

  –  Example: Television programming expanding to 4+ hours daily on major networks

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

  1949 

– Television broadcasting systematic development and commercial expansion

  –  Example: Television receiver sales reaching 3 million units annually

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic advancement and broadcast infrastructure improvement

  –  Example: Coast-to-coast television network connection completed

  –  Source: Barnouw, Erik. “Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

– Broadcasting systematic enhancement and television communication optimization

  –  Example: Live television coverage of presidential inauguration and World Series

  –  Source: Head, Sydney W., Christopher H. Sterling, and Lemuel B. Schofield. “Broadcasting in America: A Survey of Electronic Media.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

– Television commercial systematic development and entertainment programming expansion

  –  Example: “The Ed Sullivan Show” and “The Milton Berle Show” establishing variety format

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– Media communication systematic improvement and television broadcast development

  –  Example: Television news departments expanding with dedicated correspondents

  –  Source: Bliss, Edward Jr. “Now the News: The Story of Broadcast Journalism.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.

  1950 

– Television broadcasting systematic expansion and market development

  –  Example: Television households reaching 3.9 million (9% of US households)

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic improvement and broadcast programming development

  –  Example: “What’s My Line?” and game show format establishing television genres

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– Broadcasting systematic advancement and television communication enhancement

  –  Example: Television advertising revenue reaching  $85 million annually

  –  Source: Head, Sydney W., Christopher H. Sterling, and Lemuel B. Schofield. “Broadcasting in America: A Survey of Electronic Media.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

– Television commercial systematic expansion and entertainment programming improvement

  –  Example: Soap opera format transitioning from radio to television

  –  Source: LaGuardia, Robert. “Soap World.” New York: Arbor House, 1983.

– Media communication systematic development and television broadcast optimization

  –  Example: Television production techniques improving with multiple camera setups

  –  Source: Zettl, Herbert. “Television Production Handbook.” Belmont: Wadsworth, 1961.

  1951 

– Television broadcasting systematic development and commercial advancement

  –  Example: Television households reaching 10.3 million (23% of US households)

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic enhancement and broadcast programming expansion

  –  Example: “I Love Lucy” establishing situation comedy format and filmed television

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– Broadcasting systematic improvement and television communication development

  –  Example: Color television broadcasting experiments by CBS and NBC

  –  Source: Abramson, Albert. “The History of Television, 1942 to 2000.” Jefferson: McFarland, 2003.

– Television commercial systematic advancement and entertainment programming optimization

  –  Example: Multiple sponsorship replacing single-sponsor program model

  –  Source: Barnouw, Erik. “The Sponsor: Notes on a Modern Potentate.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.

– Media communication systematic improvement and television broadcast enhancement

  –  Example: Kinescope distribution enabling national program syndication

  –  Source: Kisseloff, Jeff. “The Box: An Oral History of Television, 1920-1961.” New York: Viking, 1995.

  1952 

– Television broadcasting systematic expansion and UHF development

  –  Example: FCC ending station license freeze and authorizing UHF channels 14-83

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic advancement and broadcast market development

  –  Example: Television households reaching 15.3 million (34% of US households)

  –  Source: Nielsen Media Research. “Television Audience Measurement.” New York: Nielsen, 1986.

– Broadcasting systematic enhancement and television communication improvement

  –  Example: Political conventions receiving extensive television coverage

  –  Source: Bliss, Edward Jr. “Now the News: The Story of Broadcast Journalism.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.

– Television commercial systematic development and entertainment programming advancement

  –  Example: “The Today Show” establishing morning television format

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– UHF broadcasting systematic development and television spectrum expansion

  –  Example: Ultra High Frequency allocation providing additional television channels

  –  Source: Head, Sydney W., Christopher H. Sterling, and Lemuel B. Schofield. “Broadcasting in America: A Survey of Electronic Media.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

  1953 

– Television broadcasting systematic improvement and market expansion

  –  Example: Television households reaching 20.4 million (45% of US households)

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic development and broadcast programming enhancement

  –  Example: “Playhouse 90” and anthology drama establishing quality television

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– Broadcasting systematic advancement and television communication optimization

  –  Example: Television news expanding with on-scene reporting capabilities

  –  Source: Bliss, Edward Jr. “Now the News: The Story of Broadcast Journalism.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.

– Television commercial systematic improvement and entertainment programming development

  –  Example: Television advertising techniques becoming more sophisticated

  –  Source: Barnouw, Erik. “The Sponsor: Notes on a Modern Potentate.” New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.

– Media communication systematic enhancement and television broadcast advancement

  –  Example: Television production moving from New York to Hollywood

  –  Source: Anderson, Christopher. “Hollywood TV: The Studio System in the Fifties.” Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.

  1954 

– Color television development and systematic broadcast advancement

  –  Example: NTSC color television standard adoption enabling compatible color broadcasts

  –  Source: Abramson, Albert. “The History of Television, 1942 to 2000.” Jefferson: McFarland, 2003.

– Television broadcasting systematic enhancement and commercial development

  –  Example: Television households reaching 26 million (56% of US households)

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic improvement and broadcast programming expansion

  –  Example: “The  $64,000 Question” establishing big-money quiz show format

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– Color broadcasting systematic development and television technology advancement

  –  Example: RCA color television receivers enabling consumer color TV adoption

  –  Source: Ritchie, Michael. “Please Stand By: A Prehistory of Television.” Woodstock: Overlook Press, 1994.

– Broadcasting systematic advancement and television communication improvement

  –  Example: Army-McCarthy hearings demonstrating television’s political impact

  –  Source: Bliss, Edward Jr. “Now the News: The Story of Broadcast Journalism.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.

  1955 

– Television broadcasting systematic development and market maturation

  –  Example: Television households reaching 30.7 million (65% of US households)

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Television network systematic advancement and broadcast programming optimization

  –  Example: “Gunsmoke” establishing western television genre

  –  Source: MacDonald, J. Fred. “One Nation Under Television: The Rise and Decline of Network TV.” Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1994.

– Broadcasting systematic improvement and television communication enhancement

  –  Example: Television advertising revenue exceeding radio advertising

  –  Source: Head, Sydney W., Christopher H. Sterling, and Lemuel B. Schofield. “Broadcasting in America: A Survey of Electronic Media.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

– Television commercial systematic enhancement and entertainment programming advancement

  –  Example: “The Mickey Mouse Club” establishing children’s television programming

  –  Source: Davis, Susan G. “Spectacular Nature: Corporate Culture and the Sea World Experience.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.

– Media communication systematic improvement and television broadcast development

  –  Example: Videotape recording development enabling program storage and editing

  –  Source: Abramson, Albert. “The History of Television, 1942 to 2000.” Jefferson: McFarland, 2003.

    Advanced Media Technology (1956-1971)

  1956 

– Videotape recording development and systematic broadcast technology

  –  Example: Ampex VTR-1000 quadruplex videotape recorder for television production

  –  Source: Abramson, Albert. “The History of Television, 1942 to 2000.” Jefferson: McFarland, 2003.

– Television broadcasting systematic advancement and production technology improvement

  –  Example: Magnetic tape recording enabling program editing and rebroadcast

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Broadcasting systematic enhancement and television technology development

  –  Example: 2-inch quadruplex format becoming broadcast industry standard

  –  Source: Rosenthal, Alan. “The Documentary Conscience: A Casebook in Film Making.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.

– Media communication systematic improvement and broadcast production advancement

  –  Example: Instant replay capability enabling sports broadcast enhancement

  –  Source: Rader, Benjamin G. “In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports.” New York: Free Press, 1984.

– Television production systematic development and recording technology implementation

  –  Example: Electronic editing systems improving television production efficiency

  –  Source: Zettl, Herbert. “Television Production Handbook.” Belmont: Wadsworth, 1961.

  1962 

– Satellite television development and systematic broadcast transmission

  –  Example: Telstar satellite enabling first live transatlantic television broadcasts

  –  Source: Pierce, John R. “The Beginnings of Satellite Communications.” San Francisco: San Francisco Press, 1968.

– Television broadcasting systematic advancement and international communication

  –  Example: Live television coverage of events between US and Europe

  –  Source: Martin, James. “Communications Satellite Systems.” Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1978.

– Broadcasting systematic enhancement and satellite technology development

  –  Example: Ground stations at Andover, Maine and Pleumeur-Bodou, France

  –  Source: Evans, John V. “Satellite Communication Systems.” London: Peter Peregrinus, 1987.

– Satellite communication systematic development and television broadcast improvement

  –  Example: Geostationary satellite concept for continuous television coverage

  –  Source: Clarke, Arthur C. “Extra-Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give World-wide Radio Coverage?” Wireless World 51, no. 10 (1945): 305-308.

– Media communication systematic advancement and satellite broadcast technology

  –  Example: International television program exchange via satellite

  –  Source: Luther, Arch. “Digital Video and HDTV: Algorithms and Interfaces.” Boston: Focal Press, 1999.

  1963 

– Cassette tape development and portable audio recording

  –  Example: Philips Compact Cassette providing portable audio recording and playback

  –  Source: Morton, David. “Off the Record: The Technology and Culture of Sound Recording in America.” New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2000.

– Audio recording systematic advancement and portable media technology

  –  Example: Magnetic tape cassette enabling home audio recording

  –  Source: Millard, Andre. “America on Record: A History of Recorded Sound.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

– Media communication systematic improvement and audio technology development

  –  Example: Cassette format becoming standard for portable audio applications

  –  Source: Coleman, Mark. “Playback: From the Victrola to MP3, 100 Years of Music, Machines, and Money.” Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2003.

– Broadcasting systematic enhancement and audio recording advancement

  –  Example: Cassette tapes enabling program distribution and home recording

  –  Source: Gelatt, Roland. “The Fabulous Phonograph: From Edison to Stereo.” New York: Appleton-Century, 1965.

– Audio technology systematic development and portable recording implementation

  –  Example: Dolby noise reduction improving cassette audio quality

  –  Source: Dolby, Ray M. “An Audio Noise Reduction System.” Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 15, no. 4 (1967): 383-388.

  1968 

– Electronic news gathering development and portable television production

  –  Example: Portable video equipment enabling on-location television news

  –  Source: Bliss, Edward Jr. “Now the News: The Story of Broadcast Journalism.” New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.

– Television broadcasting systematic advancement and mobile production technology

  –  Example: Electronic cameras and portable VTRs replacing film equipment

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Broadcasting systematic enhancement and electronic production development

  –  Example: Instant transmission of news events to television stations

  –  Source: Yorke, Ivor. “Television News.” Boston: Focal Press, 1987.

– Media communication systematic improvement and electronic journalism advancement

  –  Example: Live television coverage of breaking news events

  –  Source: Matusow, Barbara. “The Evening Stars: The Making of the Network News Anchor.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983.

– Television production systematic development and electronic recording technology

  –  Example: 3/4-inch U-matic videocassette format for professional production

  –  Source: Abramson, Albert. “The History of Television, 1942 to 2000.” Jefferson: McFarland, 2003.

  1971 

– Video cassette recorder development and consumer recording technology

  –  Example: Sony U-matic 3/4-inch videocassette system for professional/consumer use

  –  Source: Lardner, James. “Fast Forward: Hollywood, the Japanese, and the Onslaught of the VCR.” New York: Norton, 1987.

– Digital audio recording development and systematic digital media technology

  –  Example: Early digital audio experiments using pulse code modulation

  –  Source: Pohlmann, Ken C. “Principles of Digital Audio.” Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams, 1985.

– Media communication systematic advancement and digital technology development

  –  Example: Digital recording enabling perfect audio reproduction

  –  Source: Watkinson, John. “The Art of Digital Audio.” Oxford: Focal Press, 1988.

– Television broadcasting systematic improvement and recording technology advancement

  –  Example: Helical scan recording enabling compact videocassette systems

  –  Source: Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kittross. “Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting.” Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.

– Broadcasting systematic enhancement and consumer recording development

  –  Example: Time-shift viewing capability enabling flexible television consumption

  –  Source: Levy, Mark R. “VCR Use and the Concept of Audience Activity.” Communication Research 14, no. 6 (1987): 725-744.

   Digital Technology and Semiconductors

    Transistor Development (1940s-1950s)

  1947 

– Transistor invention and semiconductor device development

  –  Example: John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley’s point-contact transistor at Bell Labs

  –  Source: Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. “Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age.” New York: Norton, 1997.

– Electronic component systematic advancement and solid-state technology development

  –  Example: Germanium point-contact transistor amplifying electrical signals

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

– Semiconductor technology systematic development and electronic device improvement

  –  Example: Transistor replacing vacuum tubes with smaller, more efficient operation

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Physical Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1983.

– Solid-state electronics systematic advancement and transistor technology implementation

  –  Example: Semiconductor physics enabling controlled electrical conduction

  –  Source: Seitz, Frederick, and Norman G. Einspruch. “Electronic Genie: The Tangled History of Silicon.” Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998.

– Electronic device systematic development and semiconductor component advancement

  –  Example: P-N junction theory explaining transistor operation principles

  –  Source: Shockley, William. “Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors.” New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1950.

  1948 

– Junction transistor development and improved semiconductor design

  –  Example: William Shockley’s junction transistor improving on point-contact design

  –  Source: Shockley, William. “The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors.” Bell System Technical Journal 28, no. 3 (1949): 435-489.

– Electronic component systematic improvement and transistor technology advancement

  –  Example: Bipolar junction transistor with emitter, base, and collector regions

  –  Source: Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. “Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age.” New York: Norton, 1997.

– Semiconductor technology systematic enhancement and electronic device optimization

  –  Example: Grown junction transistor using single crystal germanium

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

– Solid-state electronics systematic improvement and transistor design advancement

  –  Example: Current amplification factor exceeding 100 with improved efficiency

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Physical Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1983.

– Electronic device systematic enhancement and semiconductor component development

  –  Example: Alloy junction transistor manufacturing process development

  –  Source: Early, James M. “Structure-Determined Gain-Band-Width Product of Junction Triode Transistors.” Proceedings of the IRE 46, no. 6 (1958): 1924-1927.

  1949 

– Transistor commercial development and semiconductor manufacturing

  –  Example: Western Electric beginning transistor production for Bell System applications

  –  Source: Tilton, John E. “International Diffusion of Technology: The Case of Semiconductors.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1971.

– Electronic component systematic commercialization and transistor production implementation

  –  Example: Point-contact transistors manufactured for hearing aid applications

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

– Semiconductor technology systematic development and manufacturing process advancement

  –  Example: Single crystal germanium growth for improved transistor performance

  –  Source: Teal, Gordon K., and John B. Little. “Growth of Germanium Single Crystals.” Physical Review 78, no. 5 (1950): 647.

– Solid-state electronics systematic commercialization and transistor application development

  –  Example: Transistor radio development demonstrating portable electronic applications

  –  Source: Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. “Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age.” New York: Norton, 1997.

– Electronic device systematic production and semiconductor component manufacturing

  –  Example: Raytheon and other companies licensing transistor technology

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Physical Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1983.

  1954 

– Silicon transistor development and advanced semiconductor technology

  –  Example: Gordon Teal’s silicon transistor at Texas Instruments operating at higher temperatures

  –  Source: Teal, Gordon K. “Single Crystals of Germanium and Silicon—Basic to the Transistor and Integrated Circuit.” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices ED-23, no. 7 (1976): 621-639.

– Electronic component systematic advancement and silicon technology implementation

  –  Example: Silicon transistor operating at 150°C versus 85°C for germanium

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

– Semiconductor technology systematic improvement and manufacturing process enhancement

  –  Example: Czochralski method for growing high-purity silicon crystals

  –  Source: Seitz, Frederick, and Norman G. Einspruch. “Electronic Genie: The Tangled History of Silicon.” Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998.

– Solid-state electronics systematic development and silicon transistor applications

  –  Example: Military electronics adopting silicon transistors for reliability

  –  Source: Tilton, John E. “International Diffusion of Technology: The Case of Semiconductors.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1971.

– Electronic device systematic enhancement and semiconductor component optimization

  –  Example: Diffusion process development for precise transistor manufacturing

  –  Source: Fuller, Calvin S., and John A. Ditzenberger. “Diffusion of Donor and Acceptor Elements in Silicon.” Journal of Applied Physics 27, no. 5 (1956): 544-553.

    Integrated Circuit Development (1958-1971)

  1958 

– Integrated circuit invention and systematic electronic component integration

  –  Example: Jack Kilby’s first integrated circuit at Texas Instruments using germanium

  –  Source: Kilby, Jack S. “Invention of the Integrated Circuit.” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices ED-23, no. 7 (1976): 648-654.

– Electronic component systematic miniaturization and circuit integration development

  –  Example: Monolithic circuit combining transistors, resistors, and capacitors on single substrate

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

– Semiconductor technology systematic advancement and integrated device implementation

  –  Example: Flip-flop circuit demonstrating feasibility of complex integrated circuits

  –  Source: Reid, T.R. “The Chip: How Two Americans Invented the Microchip and Launched a Revolution.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984.

– Solid-state electronics systematic integration and component miniaturization

  –  Example: Multiple electronic functions integrated on single semiconductor chip

  –  Source: Millman, S. “A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Physical Sciences.” Murray Hill: Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1983.

– Electronic device systematic development and integrated circuit technology advancement

  –  Example: Wire bonding technique connecting integrated circuit to external package

  –  Source: Kilby, Jack S. “Turning Potential into Realities: The Invention of the Integrated Circuit.” Nobel Prize Lecture, December 8, 2000.

  1959 

– Planar process development and integrated circuit manufacturing

  –  Example: Robert Noyce’s planar process at Fairchild Semiconductor enabling IC mass production

  –  Source: Noyce, Robert N. “Microelectronics.” Scientific American 237, no. 3 (1977): 63-69.

– Electronic component systematic manufacturing and circuit integration optimization

  –  Example: Silicon dioxide passivation protecting semiconductor surfaces

  –  Source: Hoerni, Jean A. “Planar Silicon Transistors and Diodes.” IRE Electron Devices Meeting, 1960.

– Semiconductor technology systematic improvement and manufacturing process advancement

  –  Example: Photolithography enabling precise pattern definition on silicon wafers

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

– Solid-state electronics systematic manufacturing and integrated circuit production

  –  Example: Interconnect metallization using aluminum for circuit connections

  –  Source: Seitz, Frederick, and Norman G. Einspruch. “Electronic Genie: The Tangled History of Silicon.” Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998.

– Electronic device systematic production and integrated circuit technology implementation

  –  Example: Micrologic family of integrated circuits for computer applications

  –  Source: Tilton, John E. “International Diffusion of Technology: The Case of Semiconductors.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1971.

  1961 

– Integrated circuit commercial production and systematic semiconductor manufacturing

  –  Example: Fairchild Semiconductor’s commercial IC production beginning

  –  Source: Berlin, Leslie. “The Man Behind the Microchip: Robert Noyce and the Invention of Silicon Valley.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

– Electronic component systematic commercialization and circuit integration deployment

  –  Example: RTL (Resistor-Transistor Logic) integrated circuits for digital applications

  –  Source: Morris, Peter Robin. “A History of the World Semiconductor Industry.” London: Peter Peregrinus, 1990.

– Semiconductor technology systematic development and commercial manufacturing advancement

  –  Example: Multiple IC companies forming including Signetics and General Microelectronics

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

– Solid-state electronics systematic commercialization and integrated circuit applications

  –  Example: Minuteman missile program using integrated circuits for reliability

  –  Source: MacKenzie, Donald. “The Influence of the Los Alamos and Livermore National Laboratories on the Development of Supercomputing.” Annals of the History of Computing 13, no. 2 (1991): 179-201.

– Electronic device systematic production and integrated circuit market development

  –  Example: IC prices dropping from   $120 to  $ 8.65 per unit within two years

  –  Source: Tilton, John E. “International Diffusion of Technology: The Case of Semiconductors.” Washington: Brookings Institution, 1971.

  1963 

– CMOS technology development and low-power integrated circuits

  –  Example: Frank Wanlass’s complementary MOS technology at Fairchild Semiconductor

  –  Source: Wanlass, Frank M., and C.T. Sah. “Nanowatt Logic Using Field-Effect Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Triodes.” IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, 1963.

– Electronic component systematic advancement and power-efficient circuit development

  –  Example: CMOS circuits using virtually no power in static operation

  –  Source: Hodges, David A., and Horace G. Jackson. “Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.

– Semiconductor technology systematic improvement and MOS technology implementation

  –  Example: Silicon gate technology improving MOS transistor performance

  –  Source: Faggin, Federico, and Tom Klein. “Silicon Gate Technology.” Solid-State Electronics 13, no. 8 (1970): 1125-1144.

– Solid-state electronics systematic development and complementary circuit design

  –  Example: N-channel and P-channel MOS transistors in complementary configuration

  –  Source: Mead, Carver, and Lynn Conway. “Introduction to VLSI Systems.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1980.

– Electronic device systematic advancement and MOS integrated circuit technology

  –  Example: Self-aligned gate process improving transistor characteristics

  –  Source: Taur, Yuan, and Tak H. Ning. “Fundamentals of Modern VLSI Devices.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

  1965 

– Moore’s Law prediction and semiconductor density forecasting

  –  Example: Gordon Moore’s prediction of doubling transistor density every 18-24 months

  –  Source: Moore, Gordon E. “Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits.” Electronics 38, no. 8 (1965): 114-117.

– Electronic component systematic scaling and circuit density advancement

  –  Example: Transistor count increasing from 30 to 60 transistors per integrated circuit

  –  Source: Mack, Chris. “Fifty Years of Moore’s Law.” IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing 24, no. 2 (2011): 202-207.

– Semiconductor technology systematic development and manufacturing scaling

  –  Example: Minimum feature size reducing from 10 micrometers to 8 micrometers

  –  Source: Thompson, Scott, and Tsu-Jae King. “Device Physics and Circuit Performance of Sub-50 nm MOSFETs.” In “IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting Technical Digest,” 833-836. IEEE, 1998.

– Solid-state electronics systematic advancement and integrated circuit scaling

  –  Example: Cost per transistor decreasing as manufacturing volumes increase

  –  Source: Braun, Ernest, and Stuart Macdonald. “Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

– Electronic device systematic scaling and semiconductor manufacturing optimization

  –  Example: Photolithography improvements enabling smaller transistor geometries

  –  Source: Lin, Burn Jeng. “Optical Lithography—Present and Future Challenges.” Comptes Rendus Physique 7, no. 8 (2006): 858-874.

  1967 

– Calculator chip development and dedicated integrated circuits

  –  Example: Texas Instruments’ calculator chipset for Busicom desktop calculator

  –  Source: Hoff, Marcian E., Jr. “The History of Microprocessor Development at Intel.” IEEE Micro 1, no. 1 (1981): 8-21.

– Electronic component systematic specialization and application-specific circuit development

  –  Example: Multi-chip calculator set performing arithmetic operations

  –  Source: Faggin, Federico. “The Making of the First Microprocessor.” IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine 1, no. 1 (2009): 8-21.

– Semiconductor technology systematic application and specialized circuit implementation

  –  Example: MOS shift registers for calculator memory functions

  –  Source: Boone, David M. “MOS Integrated Circuits.” In “Semiconductor Memories,” edited by D.A. Hodges, 45-89. IEEE Press, 1972.

– Solid-state electronics systematic specialization and calculator application development

  –  Example: Binary-coded decimal arithmetic circuits for consumer electronics

  –  Source: Hodges, David A., and Horace G. Jackson. “Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.

– Electronic device systematic application and consumer integrated circuit development

  –  Example: Single-chip calculator functions demonstrating IC versatility

  –  Source: Reid, T.R. “The Chip: How Two Americans Invented the Microchip and Launched a Revolution.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984.

  1968 

– Large Scale Integration (LSI) development and complex integrated circuits

  –  Example: Intel’s 1103 dynamic RAM containing 1,024 bits on single chip

  –  Source: Faggin, Federico, Marcian E. Hoff Jr., Stanley Mazor, and Masatoshi Shima. “The History of the 4004.” IEEE Micro 16, no. 6 (1996): 10-20.

– Electronic component systematic advancement and memory circuit integration

  –  Example: Dynamic RAM using single transistor per bit storage cell

  –  Source: Dennard, Robert H. “Field-Effect Transistor Memory.” U.S. Patent 3,387,286, filed February 8, 1967.

– Semiconductor technology systematic improvement and memory manufacturing advancement

  –  Example: One-transistor DRAM cell enabling high-density memory arrays

  –  Source: Dennard, Robert H., et al. “Design of Ion-Implanted MOSFET’s with Very Small Physical Dimensions.” IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits SC-9, no. 5 (1974): 256-268.

– Solid-state electronics systematic integration and large-scale circuit development

  –  Example: 1,024-bit memory array demonstrating LSI capabilities

  –  Source: Hodges, David A., and Horace G. Jackson. “Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.

– Electronic device systematic advancement and semiconductor memory technology

  –  Example: Refresh circuitry maintaining dynamic memory data integrity

  –  Source: Prince, Betty. “Semiconductor Memories: A Handbook of Design, Manufacture, and Application.” Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1991.

  1971 

– Microprocessor development and single-chip computer implementation

  –  Example: Intel 4004 microprocessor containing 2,300 transistors on 12 square millimeters

  –  Source: Hoff, Marcian E., Jr. “The History of Microprocessor Development at Intel.” IEEE Micro 1, no. 1 (1981): 8-21.

– EPROM development and erasable programmable memory

  –  Example: Dov Frohman’s EPROM enabling reprogrammable memory applications

  –  Source: Frohman-Bentchkowsky, Dov. “FAMOS—A New Semiconductor Charge Storage Device.” Solid-State Electronics 17, no. 6 (1974): 517-529.

– Electronic component systematic advancement and microprocessor technology implementation

  –  Example: 4-bit microprocessor with 46 instructions and 4KB addressable memory

  –  Source: Faggin, Federico, Marcian E. Hoff Jr., Stanley Mazor, and Masatoshi Shima. “The History of the 4004.” IEEE Micro 16, no. 6 (1996): 10-20.

– Semiconductor technology systematic development and programmable memory advancement

  –  Example: UV-erasable memory enabling software development and prototyping

  –  Source: Kahng, Andrew B. “Roadmaps and Roadblocks on the Path to NanoELSI.” In “Nanoelectronics and Information Technology,” edited by Rainer Waser, 63-78. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2003.

– Electronic device systematic integration and microprocessor application development

  –  Example: Calculator and control applications demonstrating microprocessor versatility

  –  Source: Noyce, Robert N., and Marcian E. Hoff Jr. “A History of Microprocessor Development at Intel.” IEEE Micro 1, no. 1 (1981): 8-21.

   Mobile Communications

    Early Mobile Systems (1946-1950s)

  1946 

– Mobile Telephone Service introduction and commercial mobile communication

  –  Example: Bell System’s MTS service in St. Louis with 3 channels serving 150 subscribers

  –  Source: Young, Peter. “Person to Person: The International Impact of the Telephone.” Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1991.

– Mobile communication systematic development and wireless telephone service implementation

  –  Example: 150 MHz mobile radiotelephone service in major US cities

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Wireless telephone systematic advancement and mobile service deployment

  –  Example: Vehicle-mounted radio equipment weighing 80 pounds

  –  Source: Farley, Tom. “Mobile Telephone History.” Telektronikk 3, no. 4 (2005): 22-34.

– Mobile radio systematic development and commercial wireless communication

  –  Example: Manual operator connection for mobile-to-landline calls

  –  Source: MacDonald, V.H. “The Cellular Concept.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 15-41.

– Wireless communication systematic implementation and mobile telephone service

  –  Example: Push-to-talk operation and half-duplex communication

  –  Source: Lee, William C.Y. “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.

  1947 

– VHF mobile radio development and systematic wireless communication improvement

  –  Example: Very High Frequency systems providing clearer mobile communication

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Mobile communication systematic advancement and radio technology improvement

  –  Example: FM modulation reducing static and improving voice quality

  –  Source: Young, Peter. “Person to Person: The International Impact of the Telephone.” Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1991.

– Wireless telephone systematic enhancement and mobile service optimization

  –  Example: Improved antennas increasing mobile radio coverage area

  –  Source: Farley, Tom. “Mobile Telephone History.” Telektronikk 3, no. 4 (2005): 22-34.

– Mobile radio systematic improvement and commercial wireless development

  –  Example: Automatic volume control reducing background noise

  –  Source: Lee, William C.Y. “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.

– Wireless communication systematic development and mobile telephone enhancement

  –  Example: Repeater stations extending mobile communication range

  –  Source: MacDonald, V.H. “The Cellular Concept.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 15-41.

  1949 

– Radio Common Carrier development and private mobile radio services

  –  Example: FCC authorizing Radio Common Carriers for commercial mobile services

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Mobile communication systematic expansion and commercial service development

  –  Example: Private companies providing mobile radio services to businesses

  –  Source: Young, Peter. “Person to Person: The International Impact of the Telephone.” Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1991.

– Wireless telephone systematic improvement and mobile service enhancement

  –  Example: Dispatch services for taxi and delivery companies

  –  Source: Farley, Tom. “Mobile Telephone History.” Telektronikk 3, no. 4 (2005): 22-34.

– Mobile radio systematic advancement and commercial wireless expansion

  –  Example: Fleet management communications for transportation companies

  –  Source: Lee, William C.Y. “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.

– Wireless communication systematic development and mobile service optimization

  –  Example: Simplex and duplex communication modes for different applications

  –  Source: MacDonald, V.H. “The Cellular Concept.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 15-41.

    Mobile System Advancement (1950s-1960s)

  1954 

– Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS) development and automatic mobile systems

  –  Example: IMTS enabling direct-dial mobile calls without operator assistance

  –  Source: Young, William R. “Advanced Mobile Phone Service: Introduction, Background, and Objectives.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 1-14.

– Mobile communication systematic advancement and automatic dialing implementation

  –  Example: Customer-dialed mobile calls using conventional telephone numbers

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Wireless telephone systematic improvement and mobile service automation

  –  Example: Full-duplex conversation enabling simultaneous talking and listening

  –  Source: Young, Peter. “Person to Person: The International Impact of the Telephone.” Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1991.

– Mobile radio systematic enhancement and commercial wireless development

  –  Example: Automatic channel selection reducing user intervention

  –  Source: Farley, Tom. “Mobile Telephone History.” Telektronikk 3, no. 4 (2005): 22-34.

– Wireless communication systematic development and mobile telephone optimization

  –  Example: Improved receiver sensitivity increasing coverage area

  –  Source: Lee, William C.Y. “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.

  1957 

– Transistorized mobile equipment development and portable radio advancement

  –  Example: Transistors replacing vacuum tubes in mobile radio equipment

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Mobile communication systematic improvement and solid-state technology implementation

  –  Example: Reduced power consumption and improved reliability

  –  Source: Young, Peter. “Person to Person: The International Impact of the Telephone.” Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1991.

– Wireless telephone systematic advancement and mobile equipment miniaturization

  –  Example: Lighter, more compact mobile radio installations

  –  Source: Farley, Tom. “Mobile Telephone History.” Telektronikk 3, no. 4 (2005): 22-34.

– Mobile radio systematic enhancement and transistor technology deployment

  –  Example: Battery-powered portable radios for personal communication

  –  Source: Lee, William C.Y. “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.

– Wireless communication systematic development and mobile technology optimization

  –  Example: Improved frequency stability and reduced interference

  –  Source: MacDonald, V.H. “The Cellular Concept.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 15-41.

  1964 

– Mobile communication systematic advancement and service expansion

  –  Example: Mobile telephone subscribers reaching 1.5 million in United States

  –  Source: Young, William R. “Advanced Mobile Phone Service: Introduction, Background, and Objectives.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 1-14.

– Wireless telephone systematic improvement and coverage enhancement

  –  Example: UHF mobile systems providing additional frequency allocations

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Mobile radio systematic development and communication service optimization

  –  Example: Paging services enabling one-way message transmission

  –  Source: Young, Peter. “Person to Person: The International Impact of the Telephone.” Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1991.

– Wireless communication systematic advancement and mobile service improvement

  –  Example: Automatic vehicle location systems for fleet management

  –  Source: Farley, Tom. “Mobile Telephone History.” Telektronikk 3, no. 4 (2005): 22-34.

– Mobile telephone systematic enhancement and wireless technology development

  –  Example: Data transmission over mobile radio channels

  –  Source: Lee, William C.Y. “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.

    Cellular Development (1968-1971)

  1968 

– Cellular concept development and frequency reuse theory

  –  Example: Bell Labs’ cellular system concept with hexagonal cell pattern

  –  Source: MacDonald, V.H. “The Cellular Concept.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 15-41.

– Mobile communication systematic advancement and cellular network theory

  –  Example: Frequency reuse enabling increased system capacity

  –  Source: Young, William R. “Advanced Mobile Phone Service: Introduction, Background, and Objectives.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 1-14.

– Wireless telephone systematic development and cellular architecture planning

  –  Example: Low-power transmitters enabling frequency reuse in distant cells

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Mobile radio systematic improvement and cellular system design

  –  Example: Automatic handoff between cells as mobile units move

  –  Source: Lee, William C.Y. “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.

– Wireless communication systematic enhancement and cellular technology development

  –  Example: Central switching office coordinating multiple cell sites

  –  Source: Farley, Tom. “Mobile Telephone History.” Telektronikk 3, no. 4 (2005): 22-34.

  1971 

– Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) proposal and cellular system development

  –  Example: Bell System’s AMPS proposal to FCC for cellular telephone service

  –  Source: Young, William R. “Advanced Mobile Phone Service: Introduction, Background, and Objectives.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 1-14.

– Cellular system systematic development and FCC spectrum allocation

  –  Example: 825-845 MHz and 870-890 MHz bands allocated for cellular service

  –  Source: Calhoun, George. “Digital Cellular Radio.” Boston: Artech House, 1988.

– Mobile communication systematic advancement and cellular network planning

  –  Example: 666 channels allocated for AMPS cellular system

  –  Source: MacDonald, V.H. “The Cellular Concept.” Bell System Technical Journal 58, no. 1 (1979): 15-41.

– Wireless telephone systematic development and cellular infrastructure design

  –  Example: Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) controlling cell sites

  –  Source: Lee, William C.Y. “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.

– Mobile radio systematic enhancement and cellular technology implementation

  –  Example: Electronic serial number (ESN) for mobile unit identification

  –  Source: Farley, Tom. “Mobile Telephone History.” Telektronikk 3, no. 4 (2005): 22-34.

   Supporting Technologies and Infrastructure

    Data Storage Technology (1948-1971)

  1948 

– Magnetic tape storage development and systematic data recording

  –  Example: Bing Crosby’s magnetic tape system for audio and data storage

  –  Source: Morton, David. “Off the Record: The Technology and Culture of Sound Recording in America.” New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2000.

– Electronic storage systematic advancement and magnetic recording technology

  –  Example: UNIVAC I using metal tape for program and data storage

  –  Source: Stevens, Louis D. “The evolution of magnetic storage.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 25, no. 5 (1981): 663-675.

– Data recording systematic development and information storage improvement

  –  Example: Binary data recording on magnetic tape at 100 bits per inch

  –  Source: Hoagland, Albert S. “Digital Magnetic Recording.” New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1963.

– Magnetic storage systematic implementation and computer data management

  –  Example: Sequential data access enabling large-capacity information storage

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– Information storage systematic advancement and magnetic tape technology

  –  Example: Reel-to-reel tape systems for computer data backup and archival

  –  Source: Aspray, William. “John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990.

  1950 

– Magnetic drum storage development and computer memory systems

  –  Example: Engineering Research Associates’ magnetic drum memory for ATLAS computer

  –  Source: Tomash, Erwin. “The Start of an ERA: Engineering Research Associates, Inc., 1946-1955.” In “A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century,” edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and G.-C. Rota, 485-495. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

– Electronic storage systematic advancement and rotating magnetic memory

  –  Example: Magnetic drum providing 16,384 words of high-speed access storage

  –  Source: Stevens, Louis D. “The evolution of magnetic storage.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 25, no. 5 (1981): 663-675.

– Data recording systematic development and drum storage technology

  –  Example: 3,000 RPM magnetic drum with 17-millisecond average access time

  –  Source: Booth, Andrew D., and Kathleen H.V. Booth. “Automatic Digital Calculators.” London: Butterworths Scientific Publications, 1953.

– Magnetic storage systematic implementation and computer memory advancement

  –  Example: Parallel data tracks on drum surface enabling simultaneous read operations

  –  Source: Williams, Samuel B. “Magnetic Phenomena in Ferrites.” Proceedings of the IEE – Part B: Radio and Electronic Engineering 104, no. 5 (1957): 238-249.

– Information storage systematic improvement and rotating memory technology

  –  Example: Non-volatile storage retaining data during power interruptions

  –  Source: Rajchman, Jan A. “Computer Memories: A Survey of the State-of-the-Art.” Proceedings of the IRE 49, no. 1 (1961): 104-127.

  1956 

– RAMAC development and magnetic disk storage systems

  –  Example: Reynold Johnson’s IBM 305 RAMAC with fifty 24-inch rotating disks

  –  Source: Johnson, Reynold B. “The Magnetic Disk Storage Unit.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 1, no. 1 (1957): 92-98.

– Electronic storage systematic advancement and random access technology

  –  Example: 5 million character storage capacity with random access capability

  –  Source: Stevens, Louis D. “The evolution of magnetic storage.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 25, no. 5 (1981): 663-675.

– Data recording systematic development and disk storage implementation

  –  Example: Magnetic read/write heads positioning over spinning disk surfaces

  –  Source: Hoagland, Albert S. “Digital Magnetic Recording.” New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1963.

– Magnetic storage systematic improvement and disk technology advancement

  –  Example: Average access time of 600 milliseconds for random data retrieval

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– Information storage systematic enhancement and rotating disk memory

  –  Example: Direct access storage enabling database and file management applications

  –  Source: Date, C.J. “An Introduction to Database Systems.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1975.

  1971 

– Floppy disk development and portable computer storage

  –  Example: IBM’s 8-inch floppy diskette storing 80 kilobytes of data

  –  Source: Stevens, Louis D. “The evolution of magnetic storage.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 25, no. 5 (1981): 663-675.

– Electronic storage systematic advancement and removable media technology

  –  Example: Flexible magnetic disk enabling data portability and backup

  –  Source: Hoagland, Albert S., and Roger E. Monson. “Digital Magnetic Recording.” Malabar: Krieger Publishing, 1991.

– Data recording systematic development and portable storage implementation

  –  Example: Read-only memory (ROM) diskettes for software distribution

  –  Source: Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. “IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

– Magnetic storage systematic improvement and removable disk technology

  –  Example: Single-sided recording with 77 tracks per disk surface

  –  Source: Mee, C. Denis, and Eric D. Daniel, eds. “Magnetic Recording Technology.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.

– Information storage systematic enhancement and portable data management

  –  Example: Sequential and random access capability on removable medium

  –  Source: IBM Corporation. “IBM System/370 Model 155 Disk Operating System: Introduction.” IBM, 1972.

    Display Technology (1940s-1971)

  1940s 

– Cathode ray tube display development and computer output systems

  –  Example: Williams tube CRT memory serving dual function as storage and display

  –  Source: Williams, F.C., and T. Kilburn. “Electronic Digital Computers.” Nature 162 (1948): 487.

– Electronic display systematic advancement and visual output technology

  –  Example: Phosphor screen converting electron beam to visible light patterns

  –  Source: Luxenberg, H.R., and R.L. Kuehn, eds. “Display Systems Engineering.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.

– Visual output systematic development and CRT display implementation

  –  Example: Oscilloscope-type displays showing computer calculation results

  –  Source: Ceruzzi, Paul E. “A History of Modern Computing.” Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

– Computer display systematic improvement and cathode ray technology

  –  Example: Direct digital-to-analog conversion for real-time display generation

  –  Source: Newman, William M., and Robert F. Sproull. “Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973.

– Display technology systematic advancement and electronic visualization

  –  Example: Vector graphics displays enabling line drawing and geometric shapes

  –  Source: Foley, James D., and Andries van Dam. “Fundamentals of Interactive Computer Graphics.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1982.

  1968 

– Liquid crystal display development and flat panel technology

  –  Example: RCA’s liquid crystal display research enabling flat electronic displays

  –  Source: Castellano, Joseph A. “Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry.” Singapore: World Scientific, 2005.

– Electronic display systematic advancement and LCD technology implementation

  –  Example: Twisted nematic liquid crystal cells controlling light transmission

  –  Source: Bahadur, Birendra, ed. “Liquid Crystals: Applications and Uses.” Singapore: World Scientific, 1990.

– Visual output systematic development and flat panel display technology

  –  Example: Low-power consumption displays for portable electronic devices

  –  Source: Tannas, Lawrence E., Jr., ed. “Flat-Panel Displays and CRTs.” New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.

– Computer display systematic improvement and liquid crystal advancement

  –  Example: Alphanumeric character displays for calculator and computer applications

  –  Source: den Boer, Willem. “Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays.” Amsterdam: Newnes, 2005.

– Display technology systematic enhancement and LCD panel development

  –  Example: Segment displays showing numerical and simple text information

  –  Source: O’Mara, William C. “Liquid Crystal Flat Panel Displays.” New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993.

    Input/Output Technology (1960s-1971)

  1968 

– Computer mouse development and pointing device technology

  –  Example: Douglas Engelbart’s computer mouse enabling graphical user interaction

  –  Source: Engelbart, Douglas C., and William K. English. “A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect.” In “Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference,” 395-410. Washington: Thompson Book Company, 1968.

– Electronic input systematic advancement and human-computer interface technology

  –  Example: X-Y position indicator with mechanical rolling ball mechanism

  –  Source: English, William K., Douglas C. Engelbart, and Melvyn L. Berman. “Display-Selection Techniques for Text Manipulation.” IEEE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE-8, no. 1 (1967): 5-15.

– User interface systematic development and pointing device implementation

  –  Example: Direct manipulation of on-screen objects and cursor control

  –  Source: Licklider, J.C.R. “Man-Computer Symbiosis.” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE-1 (1960): 4-11.

– Computer input systematic improvement and interactive technology advancement

  –  Example: Real-time coordination between hand movement and screen response

  –  Source: Sutherland, Ivan E. “Sketchpad: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System.” MIT Lincoln Laboratory Technical Report 296, 1963.

– Input technology systematic enhancement and graphical interface development

  –  Example: Button-clicking interface enabling menu selection and command execution

  –  Source: Myers, Brad A. “A Brief History of Human-Computer Interaction Technology.” interactions 5, no. 2 (1998): 44-54.

  1971 

– Laser printing development and high-quality computer output

  –  Example: Gary Starkweather’s laser printer development at Xerox PARC

  –  Source: Starkweather, Gary K. “High-Resolution Electrophotographic Printing.” U.S. Patent 3,596,275, filed September 17, 1969.

– Electronic printing systematic advancement and laser technology implementation

  –  Example: Laser beam writing on photosensitive drum for 300 DPI resolution

  –  Source: Mort, Joe, and Dal Pai. “Photoconductivity and Related Phenomena.” Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1976.

– Computer output systematic development and high-resolution printing technology

  –  Example: Digital data conversion to laser-modulated light for printing

  –  Source: Banton, Michael. “Laser Printers.” In “Computer Peripherals and Interfaces,” 156-189. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

– Printing technology systematic improvement and laser output advancement

  –  Example: Non-impact printing enabling quiet, high-speed document production

  –  Source: Romano, Frank J. “Machine Writing and Typesetting.” Salem: GAMA Communications, 1986.

– Output technology systematic enhancement and laser printing development

  –  Example: Computer-controlled laser positioning for precise character formation

  –  Source: Lee, D.L. “Electromagnetic Principles of Integrated Optics.” New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1986.

    Electronic Component Development (1940s-1971)

  1940s 

– Crystal oscillator development and frequency control technology

  –  Example: Quartz crystal oscillators providing stable frequency references

  –  Source: Bottom, Virgil E. “Introduction to Quartz Crystal Unit Design.” New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.

– Electronic component systematic advancement and frequency stabilization

  –  Example: Temperature-compensated crystal oscillators for precision timing

  –  Source: Parzen, Benjamin. “Design of Crystal and Other Harmonic Oscillators.” New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983.

– Frequency control systematic development and crystal technology implementation

  –  Example: Crystal-controlled radio transmitters and receivers

  –  Source: Gottlieb, Irving M. “Practical Oscillator Handbook.” Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams, 1997.

– Timing technology systematic improvement and oscillator circuit advancement

  –  Example: Phase-locked loops using crystal references for frequency synthesis

  –  Source: Best, Roland E. “Phase-Locked Loops: Design, Simulation, and Applications.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003.

– Electronic timing systematic enhancement and crystal oscillator development

  –  Example: Computer clock circuits using crystal timing for synchronization

  –  Source: Horowitz, Paul, and Winfield Hill. “The Art of Electronics.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

  1943 

– Printed circuit board development and electronic assembly technology

  –  Example: Paul Eisler’s printed circuit enabling compact electronic construction

  –  Source: Coombs, Clyde F., Jr. “Printed Circuits Handbook.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.

– Electronic assembly systematic advancement and PCB manufacturing technology

  –  Example: Copper traces on insulating substrate replacing point-to-point wiring

  –  Source: Harper, Charles A., ed. “Electronic Packaging and Interconnection Handbook.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.

– Circuit construction systematic development and printed wiring implementation

  –  Example: Photolithographic etching creating precise circuit patterns

  –  Source: Manko, Howard H. “Solders and Soldering.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979.

– Electronic manufacturing systematic improvement and PCB technology advancement

  –  Example: Multi-layer printed circuits enabling complex electronic systems

  –  Source: Lau, John H., and Y.H. Pao. “Solder Joint Reliability of BGA, CSP, Flip Chip, and Fine Pitch SMT Assemblies.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.

– Assembly technology systematic enhancement and printed circuit development

  –  Example: Surface-mount component placement on printed circuit boards

  –  Source: Prasad, Ray P. “Surface Mount Technology: Principles and Practice.” New York: Chapman & Hall, 1997.

  1950s 

– Electronic test equipment development and systematic measurement technology

  –  Example: Hewlett-Packard’s electronic instruments for semiconductor testing

  –  Source: Packard, David. “The HP Way: How Bill Hewlett and I Built Our Company.” New York: HarperBusiness, 1995.

– Measurement technology systematic advancement and electronic instrumentation

  –  Example: Oscilloscopes and signal generators for electronic circuit analysis

  –  Source: Oliver, Bernard M., and John M. Cage. “Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

– Electronic instrumentation systematic development and test equipment implementation

  –  Example: Automated test equipment for semiconductor device characterization

  –  Source: Crouch, Stanley, and F. James Holler. “Principles of Instrumental Analysis.” Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1992.

– Test technology systematic improvement and measurement equipment advancement

  –  Example: Network analyzers measuring frequency response of electronic circuits

  –  Source: Agilent Technologies. “Network Analyzer Basics.” Application Note 1287-1, 2000.

– Instrumentation technology systematic enhancement and electronic testing development

  –  Example: Logic analyzers capturing digital signal timing and state information

  –  Source: So, Pak K. “Logic Analyzer Fundamentals.” Tektronix Application Note, 1991.

  1971 

– Computer-aided design development and electronic design automation

  –  Example: Early CAD systems for integrated circuit layout and simulation

  –  Source: Mead, Carver, and Lynn Conway. “Introduction to VLSI Systems.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1980.

– Electronic design systematic advancement and computer-aided engineering

  –  Example: Circuit simulation software predicting electronic behavior

  –  Source: Vladimirescu, Andrei. “The SPICE Book.” New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994.

– Design automation systematic development and CAD technology implementation

  –  Example: Automated integrated circuit layout tools reducing design time

  –  Source: Weste, Neil H.E., and Kamran Eshraghian. “Principles of CMOS VLSI Design.” Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1993.

– CAD technology systematic improvement and electronic design advancement

  –  Example: Logic synthesis tools converting behavioral descriptions to circuits

  –  Source: De Micheli, Giovanni. “Synthesis and Optimization of Digital Circuits.” New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.

– Design technology systematic enhancement and automation tool development

  –  Example: Place-and-route software optimizing integrated circuit physical design

  –  Source: Lengauer, Thomas. “Combinatorial Algorithms for Integrated Circuit Layout.” Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1990.

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Summary

This comprehensive enhanced listing demonstrates the interconnected nature of innovations during the Core Formation Period of the Fifth Technology Cycle (1940s-1971), showing how developments in computing, telecommunications, software, networking, media, semiconductors, mobile communications, and supporting technologies enabled breakthroughs across multiple domains. The systematic progression from initial concepts through commercial implementation reveals how each innovation built upon previous developments while creating the foundation for the integrated technological systems that would define the Information Age.

The gestation period established not only the specific technologies that would power the digital revolution but also the systematic integration of all six core industries: Computing and Microprocessors, Telecommunications, Software Development, Networking and Internet, Media Communications, and Digital Technology.

The period from 1940 to 1971 achieved qualitative advances in information processing, communication systems, and digital technologies that enabled computer networks, software applications, and electronic communication on scales that previous cycles could never have supported. The electronic computers, digital communication networks, and software applications of the Installation Period, beginning in 1971, built upon the comprehensive technological and institutional foundations that the Core Formation Period established across all six core industries simultaneously.