Disruptions Dawn – From steam to silicon
Innovations & References Chapter Innovation Clustering
Weight and Measure Standardization (1750s-1770s) – Uniform measurement systems Example: Standardized weights and measures for industrial materials and products across regions Connor, R.D., and A.D.C. Simpson. Weights and Measures in Scotland: A European Perspective. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland, 2004.
Combined Innovation and Bibliography Listing
Cycle 1: Industrial Revolution (1771-1830)
Core Mechanical Innovations
Water Frame Spinning Machine (1769) – Continuous thread production system Example: Arkwright’s water frame enabled consistent cotton thread production at Cromford Mill Hills, Richard L. Richard Arkwright and Cotton Spinning. London: Priory Press, 1973.
Carding Engine Mechanization (1760s-1770s) – Automated fiber preparation Example: Lewis Paul’s carding machine improved by Arkwright for consistent fiber alignment Mantoux, Paul. The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century. London: Jonathan Cape, 1928.
Power Loom Development (1785-1800) – Mechanized weaving systems Example: Edmund Cartwright’s power loom integration with spinning operations Baines, Edward. History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain. London: H. Fisher, R. Fisher, and P. Jackson, 1835.
Water Power Transmission Systems (1770s-1780s) – Mechanical power distribution Example: Gear-driven shafting systems distributing water wheel power throughout multi-story mills Reynolds, Terry S. Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
Manufacturing Process Innovations
Factory System Organization (1770s-1790s) – Centralized production coordination Example: Cromford Mill’s integrated workflow design and labor organization Pollard, Sidney. The Genesis of Modern Management. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965.
Division of Labor Specialization (1780s-1800s) – Task-specific work organization Example: Specialized workers for spinning, carding, and maintenance operations Marglin, Stephen A. “What Do Bosses Do? The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Production.” Review of Radical Political Economics 6, no. 2 (1974): 60-112.
Quality Control Standardization (1780s-1810s) – Systematic product consistency Example: Yarn count specifications and thread strength testing procedures Berg, Maxine. The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820. London: Fontana, 1985.
Infrastructure and Construction Innovations
Mill Architecture Design (1770s-1790s) – Specialized industrial building systems Example: Multi-story stone construction optimized for power transmission and workflow Giles, Colum, and Ian H. Goodall. Yorkshire Textile Mills: The Buildings of the Yorkshire Textile Industry, 1770-1930. London: HMSO, 1992.
Water Management Systems (1760s-1780s) – Hydraulic power optimization Example: Dam construction, sluice gates, and millrace design for consistent power delivery Shaw, Ronald E. Canals for a Nation: The Canal Era in the United States, 1790-1860. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990.
Measurement and Standardization Innovations
Weight and Measure Standardization (1750s-1770s) – Uniform measurement systems Example: Standardized weights and measures for industrial materials and products across regions Connor, R.D., and A.D.C. Simpson. Weights and Measures in Scotland: A European Perspective. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland, 2004.
Yarn Count Systems (1780s-1800s) – Thread quality specifications Example: Numerical systems for specifying thread thickness and strength characteristics English, Walter. The Textile Industry. London: Longmans, Green, 1969.
Machine Tolerance Standards (1790s-1810s) – Precision manufacturing specifications Example: Standardized dimensions for water frame components enabling part interchangeability Rolt, L.T.C. Tools for the Job: A Short History of Machine Tools. London: B.T. Batsford, 1965.
Cycle 2: Steam & Railway Age (1829-1880)
Steam Locomotive Innovations
Multi-Tubular Boiler Design (1829) – Efficient steam generation system Example: Robert Stephenson’s “Rocket” boiler design with multiple fire tubes Rolt, L.T.C. George and Robert Stephenson: The Railway Revolution. London: Longmans, 1960.
Blast Pipe Steam Exhaustion (1829) – Improved combustion efficiency Example: Rocket’s exhaust steam creating draft for enhanced fire intensity Ahrons, E.L. The British Steam Railway Locomotive, 1825-1925. London: Locomotive Publishing, 1927.
Direct Drive Coupling (1830s) – Power transmission optimization Example: Connecting rod systems linking pistons directly to driving wheels Ransom, P.J.G. The Victorian Railway and How It Evolved. London: Heinemann, 1990.
Track and Infrastructure Innovations
Wrought Iron Rail Production (1820s-1830s) – Durable track systems Example: John Birkinshaw’s wrought iron rail design replacing cast iron rails Lewis, M.J.T. Early Wooden Railways. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970.
Standard Gauge Adoption (1830s-1850s) – Uniform track spacing Example: 4 feet 8½ inches gauge standardization enabling network interoperability Simmons, Jack. The Railway in England and Wales, 1830-1914. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1978.
Railway Bridge Engineering (1830s-1850s) – Advanced structural systems Example: Robert Stephenson’s tubular bridge designs for long-span crossings Hopkins, H.J. A Span of Bridges. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1970.
Signaling and Communication Innovations
Mechanical Signal Systems (1830s-1840s) – Train movement coordination Example: Semaphore signals and mechanical interlocking for safe train operation Signaling Study Group. Railway Signal Engineering. London: A. & C. Black, 1980.
Telegraph Integration (1840s-1850s) – Real-time railway communication Example: Electric telegraph systems enabling train dispatching and coordination Kieve, Jeffrey L. The Electric Telegraph: A Social and Economic History. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1973.
Block System Development (1840s-1860s) – Traffic control methodology Example: Absolute block signaling preventing train collisions through systematic spacing Nock, O.S. Railway Signalling. London: A. & C. Black, 1969.
Rolling Stock Innovations
Standardized Coupling Systems (1840s-1860s) – Interchangeable car connections Example: Screw couplings enabling mixed train formations across different railways White, John H. The American Railroad Freight Car. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
Passenger Car Comfort Systems (1850s-1870s) – Enhanced travel experience Example: Compartment heating, lighting, and seating improvements Hamilton Ellis, C. Railway Carriages in the British Isles. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1965.
Freight Car Specialization (1860s-1880s) – Cargo-specific transport systems Example: Tank cars, refrigerated cars, and specialized bulk commodity cars White, John H. The American Railroad Passenger Car. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
Temporal Coordination Innovations
Railway Time Standardization (1840s-1880s) – Synchronized scheduling systems Example: Greenwich Mean Time adoption for coordinated railway operations Bartky, Ian R. Selling the True Time: Nineteenth-Century Timekeeping in America. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000.
Timetable Development (1830s-1850s) – Systematic schedule coordination Example: Bradshaw’s Railway Guide enabling passenger journey planning Simmons, Jack. The Victorian Railway. London: Thames & Hudson, 1991.
Cycle 3: Steel & Electrical Age (1875-1920)
Steel Production Innovations
Bessemer Process Implementation (1856-1875) – Mass steel production Example: Carnegie Steel’s Edgar Thomson Works utilizing Bessemer converters Wall, Joseph Frazier. Andrew Carnegie. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970.
Open-Hearth Furnace Development (1860s-1890s) – Quality steel production Example: Siemens-Martin process enabling precise chemical composition control Temin, Peter. Iron and Steel in Nineteenth-Century America. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1964.
Steel Chemistry Standardization (1880s-1910s) – Metallurgical specifications Example: ASTM formation and steel grade classification systems Brady, George S. Materials Handbook. 12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986.
Electrical Power Innovations
Central Power Station Development (1882) – Urban electrical distribution Example: Edison’s Pearl Street Station providing DC power to Manhattan district Friedel, Robert, and Paul Israel. Edison’s Electric Light. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1986.
Alternating Current Systems (1880s-1890s) – Long-distance power transmission Example: Westinghouse’s AC generation and transmission network development Jonnes, Jill. Empires of Light. New York: Random House, 2003.
Three-Phase Power Systems (1891) – Efficient industrial power distribution Example: Tesla’s polyphase system enabling efficient motor operation Cheney, Margaret. Tesla: Man Out of Time. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993.
Construction and Architecture Innovations
Steel Frame Construction (1880s-1900s) – High-rise building systems Example: Chicago School skyscraper construction using steel skeleton frames Condit, Carl W. The Chicago School of Architecture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
Elevator Technology Integration (1880s-1900s) – Vertical transportation systems Example: Otis safety elevator systems enabling practical skyscraper development Gray, Lee Edward. From Ascending Rooms to Express Elevators. Mobile: Elevator World, 2002.
Electric Lighting Systems (1880s-1910s) – Urban illumination infrastructure Example: Incandescent and arc lighting systems for streets and buildings Bright, Arthur A. The Electric-Lamp Industry. New York: Macmillan, 1949.
Industrial Machinery Innovations
Electric Motor Development (1880s-1900s) – Distributed industrial power Example: Polyphase induction motors replacing line shafting in factories Passer, Harold C. The Electrical Manufacturers, 1875-1900. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1953.
Precision Machine Tools (1890s-1910s) – Accurate manufacturing equipment Example: Brown & Sharpe precision grinding and measuring equipment Roe, Joseph Wickham. English and American Tool Builders. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1916.
Urban Infrastructure Innovations
Electric Streetcar Systems (1880s-1910s) – Urban mass transportation Example: Richmond Union Passenger Railway’s successful electric trolley system Hilton, George W., and John F. Due. The Electric Interurban Railways in America. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960.
Municipal Power Systems (1890s-1920s) – Public electrical utilities Example: Municipal ownership of electrical generation and distribution systems McDonald, Forrest. Insull. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962.
Cycle 4: Automobile Age (1908-1960)
Automotive Manufacturing Innovations
Moving Assembly Line (1913) – Continuous production systems Example: Ford Highland Park plant assembly line reducing Model T production time Hounshell, David A. From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.
Interchangeable Parts Manufacturing (1900s-1920s) – Precision component production Example: Ford’s systematic parts standardization enabling efficient assembly and service Womack, James P., Daniel T. Jones, and Daniel Roos. The Machine That Changed the World. New York: Rawson Associates, 1990.
Automotive Design Standardization (1910s-1930s) – Component interoperability systems Example: Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standards for bolts, threads, and specifications Rae, John B. The American Automobile Industry. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1984.
Internal Combustion Engine Innovations
Four-Cycle Engine Optimization (1900s-1920s) – Efficient gasoline engines Example: Improvements in valve timing, compression ratios, and fuel systems Cummins, C. Lyle. Internal Fire. 2nd ed. Carnot Press, 1989.
Engine Cooling Systems (1900s-1910s) – Thermal management technology Example: Water-cooled radiator systems enabling reliable engine operation Georgano, G.N. Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886-1930. London: Grange-Universal, 1985.
Carburetor Development (1900s-1920s) – Fuel mixture optimization Example: Float-feed carburetors providing consistent fuel-air mixtures Judge, Arthur W. Carburettors and Fuel Systems. London: Chapman & Hall, 1972.
Transmission and Control Innovations
Planetary Transmission Systems (1908-1930s) – Power transmission optimization Example: Ford Model T planetary transmission enabling simple vehicle operation McCalley, Bruce W. Model T Ford: The Car That Changed the World. Iola, WI: Krause Publications, 1994.
Electric Starting Systems (1912) – Convenient engine operation Example: Cadillac’s electric starter eliminating dangerous hand-cranking Kimes, Beverly Rae, and Henry Austin Clark. Standard Catalog of American Cars, 1805-1942. Iola, WI: Krause Publications, 1985.
Infrastructure Development Innovations
Road Construction Standardization (1910s-1930s) – Highway engineering systems Example: Federal Highway Act promoting standardized road construction methods Lewis, Tom. Divided Highways. New York: Viking Penguin, 1997.
Gasoline Distribution Networks (1910s-1920s) – Fuel supply infrastructure Example: Standard Oil and other companies developing service station networks Jakle, John A., and Keith A. Sculle. The Gas Station in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
Automotive Service Systems (1910s-1930s) – Maintenance and repair infrastructure Example: Dealer networks providing parts, service, and customer support Tedlow, Richard S. New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America. New York: Basic Books, 1990.
Financial and Market Innovations
Consumer Credit Systems (1910s-1920s) – Automotive financing mechanisms Example: General Motors Acceptance Corporation enabling installment purchasing Calder, Lendol. Financing the American Dream. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
Automotive Insurance Development (1910s-1930s) – Risk management systems Example: Specialized automobile insurance products protecting owners and third parties Mehr, Robert I., and Emerson Cammack. Principles of Insurance. 4th ed. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1972.
Manufacturing Process Innovations
Statistical Quality Control (1920s-1940s) – Production optimization systems Example: Walter Shewhart’s control charts applied to automotive manufacturing Shewhart, Walter A. Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product. New York: Van Nostrand, 1931.
Just-in-Time Delivery (1920s-1950s) – Supply chain coordination Example: Toyota Production System development reducing inventory requirements Ohno, Taiichi. Toyota Production System. Cambridge, MA: Productivity Press, 1988.
Cycle 5: Information Age (1971-Present)
Microprocessor Innovations
Intel 4004 Microprocessor (1971) – Single-chip computing system Example: First commercial microprocessor enabling programmable digital devices Faggin, Federico. “The Making of the First Microprocessor.” IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine 1, no. 1 (2009): 8-21.
x86 Architecture Development (1978-1980s) – Compatible processor systems Example: Intel 8086 and subsequent processors creating platform standardization Malone, Michael S. The Microprocessor: A Biography. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1995.
RISC Architecture Innovation (1980s) – Simplified instruction computing Example: IBM 801 and MIPS processors optimizing performance through instruction simplification Hennessy, John L., and David A. Patterson. Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach. 3rd ed. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, 2002.
Operating System Innovations
UNIX Operating System (1969-1970s) – Portable operating system architecture Example: Bell Labs UNIX providing foundation for modern operating systems Ritchie, Dennis M., and Ken Thompson. “The UNIX Time-Sharing System.” Communications of the ACM 17, no. 7 (1974): 365-375.
Personal Computer Operating Systems (1980s) – User-friendly computing interfaces Example: MS-DOS and early Windows systems enabling widespread computer adoption Young, Jeffrey S. Steve Jobs: The Journey Is the Reward. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1987.
Graphical User Interface Development (1980s-1990s) – Intuitive computer interaction Example: Xerox Star, Apple Lisa/Macintosh GUI systems improving usability Johnson, Jeff. GUI Bloopers: Don’ts and Do’s for Software Developers and Web Designers. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, 2000.
Networking and Internet Innovations
TCP/IP Protocol Development (1973-1983) – Internet communication standards Example: ARPANET protocols enabling global computer network communication Cerf, Vinton G., and Robert E. Kahn. “A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication.” IEEE Transactions on Communications 22, no. 5 (1974): 637-648.
World Wide Web Development (1989-1991) – Global information sharing system Example: Tim Berners-Lee’s HTTP, HTML, and URI creating web infrastructure Berners-Lee, Tim. Weaving the Web. New York: HarperCollins, 1999.
Internet Service Provider Networks (1990s) – Commercial internet access Example: Regional and national ISPs providing internet connectivity to consumers and businesses Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. Where Wizards Stay Up Late. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
Software Development Innovations
High-Level Programming Languages (1970s-1980s) – Accessible software development Example: C, Pascal, and other languages enabling efficient software creation Kernighan, Brian W., and Dennis M. Ritchie. The C Programming Language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1978.
Database Management Systems (1970s-1980s) – Structured information storage Example: IBM System R and Oracle database systems enabling enterprise data management Codd, E.F. “A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.” Communications of the ACM 13, no. 6 (1970): 377-387.
Software Engineering Methodologies (1980s-2000s) – Systematic software development Example: Structured programming, object-oriented design, and agile development methods Brooks, Frederick P. The Mythical Man-Month. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975.
Hardware Standardization Innovations
Personal Computer Architecture (1980s) – Compatible hardware platforms Example: IBM PC architecture creating industry-standard hardware compatibility Chposky, James, and Ted Leonsis. Blue Magic: The People, Power and Politics Behind the IBM Personal Computer. New York: Facts on File, 1988.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) (1996) – Standardized peripheral connectivity Example: USB specifications enabling plug-and-play device connectivity across platforms USB Implementers Forum. Universal Serial Bus Specification Revision 1.0. 1996.
Ethernet Networking Standards (1980s-present) – Local network communication Example: IEEE 802.3 standards enabling reliable local area network communication Spurgeon, Charles E. Ethernet: The Definitive Guide. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly, 2000.
Digital Communication Innovations
Email Systems Development (1970s-1990s) – Electronic messaging infrastructure Example: SMTP, POP3, and IMAP protocols enabling global electronic mail Partridge, Craig. “The Technical Development of Internet Email.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 30, no. 2 (2008): 3-29.
Mobile Phone Digital Networks (1990s-2000s) – Wireless communication systems Example: GSM, CDMA, and subsequent digital cellular standards enabling mobile communications Redl, Siegmund M., Matthias K. Weber, and Malcolm W. Oliphant. An Introduction to GSM. Boston: Artech House, 1995.
Manufacturing and Production Innovations
Semiconductor Fabrication (1970s-present) – Precision chip manufacturing Example: Photolithography and clean room technologies enabling microprocessor production Mack, Chris. Fundamental Principles of Optical Lithography. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) (1980s-present) – Digital design and modeling systems Example: CAD software enabling precise engineering design and manufacturing coordination Zeid, Ibrahim. CAD/CAM Theory and Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) (1990s-present) – Integrated business systems Example: SAP, Oracle, and other ERP systems enabling comprehensive business coordination Davenport, Thomas H. “Putting the Enterprise into the Enterprise System.” Harvard Business Review 76, no. 4 (1998): 121-131.
Contemporary and Emerging Technologies (2000-Present)
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Deep Learning Neural Networks (2000s-2010s) – Advanced pattern recognition systems Example: Convolutional neural networks enabling image recognition and natural language processing LeCun, Yann, Yoshua Bengio, and Geoffrey Hinton. “Deep Learning.” Nature 521, no. 7553 (2015): 436-444.
Machine Learning Frameworks (2010s) – Accessible AI development platforms Example: TensorFlow, PyTorch enabling distributed machine learning application development Abadi, Martín, et al. “TensorFlow: Large-Scale Machine Learning on Heterogeneous Systems.” 2015. https://www.tensorflow.org/.
Natural Language Processing Systems (2010s-2020s) – Human-computer communication Example: GPT, BERT, and transformer architectures enabling sophisticated language understanding Vaswani, Ashish, et al. “Attention Is All You Need.” Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 30 (2017): 5998-6008.
Biotechnology and Synthetic Biology
CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing (2012) – Precise genetic modification systems Example: Programmable gene editing enabling therapeutic and research applications Jinek, Martin, et al. “A Programmable Dual-RNA–Guided DNA Endonuclease in Adaptive Bacterial Immunity.” Science 337, no. 6096 (2012): 816-821.
Synthetic Biology Platforms (2000s-present) – Engineered biological systems Example: BioBrick standard biological parts enabling modular biological system design Endy, Drew. “Foundations for Engineering Biology.” Nature 438, no. 7067 (2005): 449-453.
Biomanufacturing Systems (2010s-present) – Biological production platforms Example: Engineered microorganisms producing pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and materials Stephanopoulos, Gregory. “Synthetic Biology and Metabolic Engineering.” ACS Synthetic Biology 1, no. 11 (2012): 514-525.
Quantum Computing and Advanced Materials
Quantum Computing Hardware (2000s-present) – Quantum information processing systems Example: Superconducting qubit systems and trapped ion quantum computers Preskill, John. “Quantum Computing in the NISQ Era and Beyond.” Quantum 2 (2018): 79.
Quantum Software Development (2010s-present) – Quantum algorithm implementation Example: Qiskit, Cirq quantum programming frameworks enabling quantum application development Cross, Andrew W., et al. “Open Quantum Assembly Language.” arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.03429 (2017).
Graphene and 2D Materials (2004-present) – Advanced material properties Example: Graphene applications in electronics, energy storage, and composite materials Novoselov, Kostya S., et al. “Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films.” Science 306, no. 5696 (2004): 666-669.
Platform Economics and Digital Ecosystems
Cloud Computing Platforms (2000s-present) – Distributed computing services Example: Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure enabling scalable computing resources Armbrust, Michael, et al. “A View of Cloud Computing.” Communications of the ACM 53, no. 4 (2010): 50-58.
Social Media Platforms (2000s-present) – Digital social networking systems Example: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn creating global social communication networks Boyd, Danah M., and Nicole B. Ellison. “Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13, no. 1 (2007): 210-230.
Mobile Application Ecosystems (2000s-present) – Distributed software platforms Example: Apple App Store, Google Play enabling mobile application distribution Ghazawneh, Ahmad, and Ola Henfridsson. “Balancing Platform Control and External Contribution in Third‐Party Development.” Information Systems Research 24, no. 2 (2013): 173-192.
Cross-Cutting Methodological and Theoretical References
Innovation and Technology Studies
Arthur, W. Brian. The Nature of Technology: What It Is and How It Evolves. New York: Free Press, 2009.
Christensen, Clayton M. The Innovator’s Dilemma. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1997.
Dosi, Giovanni. “Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories.” Research Policy 11, no. 3 (1982): 147-162.
Freeman, Christopher, and Carlota Perez. “Structural Crises of Adjustment, Business Cycles and Investment Behaviour.” In Technical Change and Economic Theory, edited by Giovanni Dosi et al., 38-66. London: Pinter, 1988.
Hughes, Thomas P. Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
Nelson, Richard R., and Sidney G. Winter. An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1982.
Perez, Carlota. Technological Revolutions and Financial Capital. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2002.
Rosenberg, Nathan. Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
Network Effects and Path Dependence
Arthur, W. Brian. “Competing Technologies, Increasing Returns, and Lock-In by Historical Events.” The Economic Journal 99, no. 394 (1989): 116-131.
David, Paul A. “Clio and the Economics of QWERTY.” The American Economic Review 75, no. 2 (1985): 332-337.
Katz, Michael L., and Carl Shapiro. “Network Externalities, Competition, and Compatibility.” The American Economic Review 75, no. 3 (1985): 424-440.
Liebowitz, Stanley J., and Stephen E. Margolis. “Path Dependence, Lock-in, and History.” Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization 11, no. 1 (1995): 205-226.
Shapiro, Carl, and Hal R. Varian. Information Rules. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999.
Systems Theory and Complexity
Anderson, Philip W., Kenneth J. Arrow, and David Pines, eds. The Economy as an Evolving Complex System. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1988.
Holland, John H. Emergence: From Chaos to Order. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1998.
Simon, Herbert A. “The Architecture of Complexity.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106, no. 6 (1962): 467-482.
Sterman, John D. Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Platform Economics and Ecosystem Studies
Baldwin, Carliss Y., and Kim B. Clark. Design Rules: The Power of Modularity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000.
Gawer, Annabelle, and Michael A. Cusumano. Platform Leadership. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2002.
Moore, James F. “Predators and Prey: A New Ecology of Competition.” Harvard Business Review 71, no. 3 (1993): 75-86.
Parker, Geoffrey G., Marshall W. Van Alstyne, and Sangeet Paul Choudary. Platform Revolution. New York: W. W. Norton, 2016.
Rochet, Jean-Charles, and Jean Tirole. “Platform Competition in Two-Sided Markets.” Journal of the European Economic Association 1, no. 4 (2003): 990-1029.
Institutional and Organizational Analysis
Chandler, Alfred D. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1977.
DiMaggio, Paul J., and Walter W. Powell. “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.” American Sociological Review 48, no. 2 (1983): 147-160.
North, Douglass C. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Orlikowski, Wanda J. “The Duality of Technology: Rethinking the Concept of Technology in Organizations.” Organization Science 3, no. 3 (1992): 398-427.
Powell, Walter W., and Paul J. DiMaggio, eds. The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Scott, W. Richard. Institutions and Organizations: Ideas, Interests, and Identities. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.
Standardization and Codification Studies
Brunsson, Nils, Bengt Jacobsson, and Associates. A World of Standards. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Busch, Lawrence. Standards: Recipes for Reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011.
David, Paul A., and Shane Greenstein. “The Economics of Compatibility Standards: An Introduction to Recent Research.” Economics of Innovation and New Technology 1, no. 1-2 (1990): 3-41.
Egyedi, Tineke M. “Beyond Consortiums, Beyond Standardisation? New Case Material and Policy Threads.” Delft University of Technology Report. Delft: DUT, 2001.
Shapiro, Carl. “Setting Compatibility Standards: Cooperation or Collusion?” In Expanding the Boundaries of Intellectual Property, edited by Rochelle Cooper Dreyfuss et al., 81-102. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Timmermans, Stefan, and Steven Epstein. “A World of Standards but not a Standard World: Toward a Sociology of Standards and Standardization.” Annual Review of Sociology 36 (2010): 69-89.
Economic Geography and Innovation Clusters
Asheim, Bjørn T., and Meric S. Gertler. “The Geography of Innovation: Regional Innovation Systems.” In The Oxford Handbook of Innovation, edited by Jan Fagerberg, David C. Mowery, and Richard R. Nelson, 291-317. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Bathelt, Harald, Anders Malmberg, and Peter Maskell. “Clusters and Knowledge: Local Buzz, Global Pipelines and the Process of Knowledge Creation.” Progress in Human Geography 28, no. 1 (2004): 31-56.
Cooke, Philip. “Regional Innovation Systems: Competitive Regulation in the New Europe.” Geoforum 23, no. 3 (1992): 365-382.
Florida, Richard. The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books, 2002.
Krugman, Paul. Geography and Trade. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991.
Porter, Michael E. “Clusters and the New Economics of Competition.” Harvard Business Review 76, no. 6 (1998): 77-90.
Saxenian, AnnaLee. Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.
Historical and Comparative Technology Studies
Basalla, George. The Evolution of Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Bijker, Wiebe E., Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987.
Cardwell, Donald S.L. Turning Points in Western Technology. New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1972.
Headrick, Daniel R. Technology: A World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Mokyr, Joel. The Gifts of Athena: Historical Origins of the Knowledge Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.
Nye, David E. Technology Matters: Questions to Live With. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006.
Pacey, Arnold. Technology in World Civilization. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.
White, Lynn. Medieval Technology and Social Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962.
Measurement and Evaluation Methodologies
Freeman, Christopher. The Economics of Industrial Innovation. 2nd ed. London: Frances Pinter, 1982.
Griliches, Zvi. “Patent Statistics as Economic Indicators: A Survey.” Journal of Economic Literature 28, no. 4 (1990): 1661-1707.
Kleinknecht, Alfred, Kees van Montfort, and Erik Brouwer. “The Non-Trivial Choice between Innovation Indicators.” Economics of Innovation and New Technology 11, no. 2 (2002): 109-121.
Lundvall, Bengt-Åke, ed. National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning. London: Pinter, 1992.
OECD. Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental Development. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2015.
OECD. Oslo Manual 2018: Guidelines for Collecting, Reporting and Using Data on Innovation. 4th ed. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2018.
Smith, Keith. “What is the ‘Knowledge Economy’? Knowledge-Intensive Industries and Distributed Knowledge Bases.” STEPS Working Paper 6. Brighton: University of Sussex, 2000.
Future Technology and Scenario Analysis
Castells, Manuel. The Rise of the Network Society. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Geels, Frank W. “Technological Transitions as Evolutionary Reconfiguration Processes.” Research Policy 31, no. 8-9 (2002): 1257-1274.
Kemp, René, Johan Schot, and Remco Hoogma. “Regime Shifts to Sustainability through Processes of Niche Formation.” Technology Analysis & Strategic Management 10, no. 2 (1998): 175-195.
Kurzweil, Ray. The Singularity Is Near. New York: Viking, 2005.
Rotmans, Jan, René Kemp, and Marjolein van Asselt. “More Evolution than Revolution: Transition Management in Public Policy.” Foresight 3, no. 1 (2001): 15-31.
Schwab, Klaus. The Fourth Industrial Revolution. Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2016.
Van de Poel, Ibo. “The Transformation of Technological Regimes.” Research Policy 32, no. 1 (2003): 49-68.
Global Coordination and Governance
Chanda, Nayan. Bound Together: How Traders, Preachers, Adventurers, and Warriors Shaped Globalization. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007.
Held, David, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton. Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.
Keohane, Robert O., and Joseph S. Nye. Power and Interdependence. 4th ed. Boston: Longman, 2012.
Rosenau, James N. Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Slaughter, Anne-Marie. A New World Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.
Strange, Susan. The Retreat of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Digital Economy and Information Society
Brynjolfsson, Erik, and Andrew McAfee. The Second Machine Age. New York: W. W. Norton, 2014.
Castells, Manuel. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. 3 vols. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996-1998.
Evans, David S., Andrei Hagiu, and Richard Schmalensee. Invisible Engines: How Software Platforms Drive Innovation and Transform Industries. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006.
Lessig, Lawrence. Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace. New York: Basic Books, 1999.
Tapscott, Don. The Digital Economy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
Zuboff, Shoshana. The Age of Surveillance Capitalism. New York: PublicAffairs, 2019.
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Brynjolfsson, Erik, and Tom Mitchell. “What Can Machine Learning Do? Workforce Implications.” Science 358, no. 6370 (2017): 1530-1534.
Domingos, Pedro. The Master Algorithm. New York: Basic Books, 2015.
Goodfellow, Ian, Yoshua Bengio, and Aaron Courville. Deep Learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016.
Russell, Stuart J., and Peter Norvig. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. 4th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2020.
Tegmark, Max. Life 3.0: Being Human in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. New York: Knopf, 2017.
Biotechnology and Synthetic Biology
Church, George M., and Ed Regis. Regenesis: How Synthetic Biology Will Reinvent Nature and Ourselves. New York: Basic Books, 2012.
Davies, Jamie A. Synthetic Biology: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.
Keasling, Jay D. “Manufacturing Molecules through Metabolic Engineering.” Science 330, no. 6009 (2010): 1355-1358.
O’Malley, Maureen A., Alexander Powell, Jonathan F. Davies, and Jane Calvert. “Knowledge-Making Distinctions in Synthetic Biology.” BioEssays 30, no. 1 (2008): 57-65.
Quantum Computing and Advanced Materials
Kitaev, Alexei, Alexander Shen, and Mikhail Vyalyi. Classical and Quantum Computation. Providence: American Mathematical Society, 2002.
McMahon, David. Quantum Computing Explained. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience, 2008.
Nielsen, Michael A., and Isaac L. Chuang. Quantum Computation and Quantum Information. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Roukes, Michael. “Nanoelectromechanical Systems Face the Future.” Physics World 14, no. 2 (2001): 25-31.
Sustainability and Environmental Technology
Geels, Frank W. “From Sectoral Systems of Innovation to Socio-Technical Systems.” Research Policy 33, no. 6-7 (2004): 897-920.
Jacobsson, Staffan, and Volkmar Lauber. “The Politics and Policy of Energy System Transformation.” Energy Policy 34, no. 2 (2006): 256-276.
Kemp, René, and Derk Loorbach. “Transition Management: A Reflexive Governance Approach.” In Reflexive Governance for Sustainable Development, edited by Jan-Peter Voß, Dierk Bauknecht, and René Kemp, 103-130. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2006. Unruh, Gregory C. “Understanding Carbon Lock-In.” Energy Policy 28, no. 12 (2000): 817-830.