Disruptions Dawn – From steam to silicon
Innovations & References Chapter New Markets
Combined Innovations and Bibliography: Five Big Bang Events and Market Creation
Cycle 1: Industrial Revolution (Arkwright – 1771)
Technical Design Standards and Manufacturing Innovations
Water Frame Spinning Technology (1769-1771) – Mechanized cotton thread production with consistent quality Example: Arkwright’s water frame produced strong cotton thread suitable for both warp and weft applications Chapman, Stanley D. The Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 1987. Wadsworth, Alfred P., and Julia de Lacy Mann. The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600-1780. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1931.
Factory System Organization (1771-1780s) – Centralized production with coordinated labor discipline Example: Cromford Mill’s integrated workforce management and production scheduling Pollard, Sidney. The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965. Thompson, E.P. “Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism.” Past & Present 38 (1967): 56-97.
Precision Manufacturing for Textile Machinery (1770s-1790s) – Standardized mechanical components and tolerances Example: Interchangeable spindle and gear specifications across multiple mill installations Musson, A.E., and Eric Robinson. Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1969. Hills, Richard L. Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Quality Control Systems for Thread Production (1771-1785) – Systematic product specification and testing Example: Standardized thread count and strength measurements for commercial trading Farnie, Douglas A. The English Cotton Industry and the World Market, 1815-1896. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Edwards, Michael M. The Growth of the British Cotton Trade, 1780-1815. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1967.
Process Standards and Operational Systems
Water Power Integration Systems (1771-1780s) – Mechanical power transmission and coordination Example: Cromford Mill’s water wheel and shaft system for multi-machine coordination Reynolds, Terry S. Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Hunter, Louis C. A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1780-1930, Vol. 1: Waterpower. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979.
Production Scheduling and Workflow Management (1771-1790s) – Systematic coordination of manufacturing processes Example: Standardized daily production schedules and worker shift coordination Landes, David S. Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983. Rule, John. The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century English Industry. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981.
Raw Material Processing Standards (1770s-1785) – Cotton preparation and quality assessment procedures Example: Systematic cotton cleaning, carding, and preparation for spinning operations Daniels, George W. The Early English Cotton Industry. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1920. Mann, Julia de Lacy. The Cloth Industry in the West of England from 1640 to 1880. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
Institutional Embedding and Regulatory Development
Factory Act Legislation Development (1802-1833) – Industrial working condition regulation Example: Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802 establishing initial factory oversight Hutchins, B.L., and Amy Harrison. A History of Factory Legislation. 3rd ed. London: P.S. King & Son, 1926. Thomas, Maurice W. The Early Factory Legislation: A Study in Legislative and Administrative Evolution. Leigh-on-Sea: Thames Bank Publishing, 1948.
Industrial Insurance and Risk Management (1780s-1810s) – Financial protection for industrial ventures Example: Fire insurance policies for textile mills and machinery coverage Supple, Barry. The Royal Exchange Assurance: A History of British Insurance, 1720-1970. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Raynes, Harold E. A History of British Insurance. 2nd ed. London: Pitman, 1964.
Professional Engineering Associations (1818-1820s) – Technical knowledge standardization and dissemination Example: Institution of Civil Engineers founding and early technical standards development Watson, Garth. The Civils: The Story of the Institution of Civil Engineers. London: Thomas Telford, 1988. Buchanan, R.A. The Engineers: A History of the Engineering Profession in Britain, 1750-1914. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1989.
Weight and Measure Standardization
Industrial Metrology Systems (1750s-1770s) – Uniform measurement systems for manufacturing Example: Standardized weights and measures for textile materials and thread specifications Connor, R.D., and A.D.C. Simpson. Weights and Measures in Scotland: A European Perspective. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland, 2004. Zupko, Ronald Edward. British Weights and Measures: A History from Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977.
Cotton Quality Grading Standards (1780s-1800s) – Systematic product classification for trade Example: Liverpool Cotton Exchange quality assessment and pricing standards Ellison, Thomas. The Cotton Trade of Great Britain. London: Effingham Wilson, 1886. Baines, Edward. History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain. London: H. Fisher, R. Fisher, and P. Jackson, 1835.
International Technology Transfer
Licensing and Franchising Systems (1780s-1800s) – Systematic technology replication and transfer Example: Arkwright’s licensing agreements for water frame technology across Lancashire mills Jeremy, David J. Transatlantic Industrial Revolution: The Diffusion of Textile Technologies between Britain and America, 1790-1830s. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981. Honeyman, Katrina. Origins of Enterprise: Business Leadership in the Industrial Revolution. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1982.
Technical Knowledge Documentation (1780s-1810s) – Systematic recording and transmission of manufacturing procedures Example: Standardized mill construction specifications and operational manuals MacLeod, Christine. Inventing the Industrial Revolution: The English Patent System, 1660-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Mokyr, Joel. The Gifts of Athena: Historical Origins of the Knowledge Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.
Cycle 2: Steam & Railway Age (Stephenson – 1829)
Technical Design Standards and Engineering Systems
Railway Gauge Standardization (1829-1840s) – Track width consistency enabling network integration Example: 4 ft 8½ in gauge adoption for Liverpool-Manchester and subsequent railways Simmons, Jack. The Railway in England and Wales, 1830-1914, Vol. 1: The System and its Working. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1978. Gourvish, T.R. Railways and the British Economy, 1830-1914. London: Macmillan, 1980.
Locomotive Design Standards (1829-1850s) – Systematic engine specifications and performance criteria Example: Rocket’s multi-tube boiler design and exhaust steam system innovations Warren, J.G.H. A Century of Locomotive Building by Robert Stephenson & Co., 1823-1923. Newcastle: Andrew Reid, 1923. Young, Robert. Timothy Hackworth and the Locomotive. London: Locomotive Publishing Co., 1923.
Railway Infrastructure Engineering (1830-1860s) – Systematic civil engineering for transportation networks Example: Standardized bridge, tunnel, and embankment construction specifications Simmons, Jack, and Gordon Biddle, eds. The Oxford Companion to British Railway History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Coleman, Terry. The Railway Navvies. London: Hutchinson, 1965.
Rolling Stock Standardization (1835-1860s) – Passenger and freight car specifications and compatibility Example: Standard coupling systems and brake mechanisms across railway networks Ellis, Hamilton. Railway Carriages in the British Isles from 1830 to 1914. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1965. Tatford, Robert. British Railway Disasters. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1969.
Safety and Signaling Systems
Block Signaling Systems (1840s-1860s) – Systematic train separation and collision prevention Example: Electric telegraph integration with railway signaling for traffic control Bagwell, Philip S. The Railway Clearing House in the British Economy, 1842-1922. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1968. Nock, O.S. Railway Signalling: A Treatise on the Recent Practice of British Railways. London: A. & C. Black, 1980.
Safety Regulation and Inspection (1840-1889) – Systematic accident prevention and investigation Example: Railway Inspectorate establishment and standardized safety procedures Parris, Henry. Government and the Railways in Nineteenth-Century Britain. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965. Rolt, L.T.C. Red for Danger: The Classic History of British Railway Disasters. 4th ed. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1982.
Temporal Coordination and Scheduling
Railway Time Standardization (1840s-1880) – Coordinated scheduling across network systems Example: Greenwich Mean Time adoption for railway timetables and operations Whitrow, G.J. Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. Zerubavel, Eviatar. Hidden Rhythms: Schedules and Calendars in Social Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.
Timetable Development and Coordination (1830-1870s) – Systematic scheduling and connection management Example: Bradshaw’s Railway Guide standardization of timetable information Freeman, Michael J. Railways and the Victorian Imagination. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. Simmons, Jack. The Victorian Railway. London: Thames & Hudson, 1991.
Financial Innovation and Corporate Organization
Joint-Stock Company Development (1830s-1860s) – Corporate structure for large-scale infrastructure investment Example: Liverpool & Manchester Railway corporate organization and securities issuance Reed, M.C. Investment in Railways in Britain, 1820-1844. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975. Cottrell, P.L. Industrial Finance, 1830-1914. London: Methuen, 1980.
Railway Securities Markets (1840s-1870s) – Specialized financial instruments for infrastructure investment Example: Railway stock and bond trading on London Stock Exchange Michie, Ranald C. The London Stock Exchange: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Campbell, R.H. Owners and Occupiers: Changes in Rural Society in South-West Scotland before 1914. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1991.
International Technology Transfer
British Railway Export Systems (1840s-1880s) – Systematic international railway development Example: British engineering expertise and equipment export to global railway projects Headrick, Daniel R. The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Davis, Lance E., and Robert A. Huttenback. Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire: The Political Economy of British Imperialism, 1860-1912. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
International Railway Standards (1850s-1900s) – Global coordination of technical specifications Example: International Railway Congress establishment and technical standards coordination Merger, Michèle. La construction des grandes compagnies de chemins de fer en France (1860-1914). Geneva: Droz, 1992. Mitchell, Brian R. International Historical Statistics: Europe 1750-1993. 4th ed. London: Macmillan, 1998.
Cycle 3: Steel & Electrical Age (Carnegie – 1875)
Advanced Metallurgy and Materials Standards
Bessemer Steel Process Refinement (1875-1890s) – Large-scale steel production with consistent quality Example: Carnegie’s Pittsburgh works integration of Bessemer converters with rolling mill operations Wall, Joseph Frazier. Andrew Carnegie. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. Temin, Peter. Iron and Steel in Nineteenth-Century America: An Economic Inquiry. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1964.
ASTM Standards Development (1898-1920s) – Systematic materials testing and specification Example: American Society for Testing and Materials establishment of steel grade classifications Brady, George Stuart. Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers, Technical Professionals, Purchasing and Production Managers, Technicians, and Supervisors. 15th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Smith, Cyril Stanley, ed. The Sorby Centennial Symposium on the History of Metallurgy. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1965.
Structural Steel Standards (1880s-1910s) – Engineering specifications for construction applications Example: Standard I-beam dimensions and load-bearing specifications for skyscraper construction Condit, Carl W. The Chicago School of Architecture: A History of Commercial and Public Building in the Chicago Area, 1875-1925. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Landau, Sarah Bradford, and Carl W. Condit. Rise of the New York Skyscraper, 1865-1913. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.
Electrical Engineering Standards and Systems
Electrical Power Generation Standards (1880s-1900s) – Voltage, frequency, and distribution system specifications Example: Edison DC systems and Westinghouse AC systems standardization competition Friedel, Robert, and Paul Israel. Edison’s Electric Light: Biography of an Invention. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1986. Jonnes, Jill. Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World. New York: Random House, 2003.
IEEE Standards Development (1884-1920s) – Professional electrical engineering standards and practices Example: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers technical standards and safety codes McMahon, A. Michal. The Making of a Profession: A Century of Electrical Engineering in America. New York: IEEE Press, 1984. Brittain, James E. Turning Points in American Electrical History. New York: IEEE Press, 1977.
Power Distribution Networks (1885-1910s) – Grid systems for urban and industrial electrification Example: Pearl Street Station and subsequent central power station development Nye, David E. Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990. Hughes, Thomas P. Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
Manufacturing Process Innovation
Continuous Steel Production (1880s-1900s) – Integrated steelmaking from ore to finished products Example: Carnegie’s vertical integration from raw materials to finished steel products Hogan, William T. Economic History of the Iron and Steel Industry in the United States. 5 vols. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1971. Livesay, Harold C. Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.
Precision Machine Tool Development (1880s-1920s) – Advanced manufacturing equipment for steel and electrical industries Example: Brown & Sharpe precision measuring instruments and machine tool standards Roe, Joseph Wickham. English and American Tool Builders. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1916. Woodbury, Robert S. Studies in the History of Machine Tools. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1972.
Construction and Infrastructure Standards
Skyscraper Construction Standards (1885-1920s) – Steel-frame building codes and safety regulations Example: Chicago building codes for steel-frame construction and fire safety Willis, Carol. Form Follows Finance: Skyscrapers and Skylines in New York and Chicago. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1995. Turak, Theodore. William Le Baron Jenney: A Pioneer of Modern Architecture. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1986.
Bridge Engineering Standards (1880s-1910s) – Long-span steel bridge design and construction specifications Example: Brooklyn Bridge construction techniques and safety standards McCullough, David. The Great Bridge: The Epic Story of the Building of the Brooklyn Bridge. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972. Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Knopf, 1995.
International Technology Transfer
Global Steel Technology Export (1890s-1920s) – International steelmaking technology and expertise transfer Example: Carnegie and other U.S. steel companies’ international expansion and technology licensing Chandler, Alfred D., Jr. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990. Wilkins, Mira. The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colonial Era to 1914. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.
Cycle 4: Automobile Age (Ford – 1908)
Mass Production and Manufacturing Standards
Assembly Line Production System (1913-1920s) – Sequential manufacturing with specialized work stations Example: Ford Highland Park plant moving assembly line for Model T production Hounshell, David A. From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984. Meyer, Stephen. The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981.
Interchangeable Parts Manufacturing (1908-1925) – Precision component production enabling assembly line efficiency Example: Ford’s systematic parts standardization and quality control procedures Womack, James P., Daniel T. Jones, and Daniel Roos. The Machine That Changed the World. New York: Rawson Associates, 1990. Nevins, Allan, and Frank Ernest Hill. Ford: The Times, the Man, the Company. New York: Scribner, 1954.
SAE Standards Development (1905-1930s) – Society of Automotive Engineers technical specifications Example: Standardized bolt threads, steel grades, and component specifications across manufacturers Rae, John B. The American Automobile: A Brief History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965. Flink, James J. The Automobile Age. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988.
Supply Chain and Vertical Integration
River Rouge Complex Integration (1917-1928) – Complete vertical integration from raw materials to finished vehicles Example: Ford’s integrated steel production, parts manufacturing, and vehicle assembly Grandin, Greg. Fordlandia: The Rise and Fall of Henry Ford’s Forgotten Jungle City. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2009. Lacey, Robert. Ford: The Men and the Machine. Boston: Little, Brown, 1986.
Just-in-Time Inventory Systems (1920s-1930s) – Coordinated supply chain management and inventory control Example: Synchronized parts delivery and production scheduling systems Ohno, Taiichi. Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production. Cambridge, MA: Productivity Press, 1988. Cusumano, Michael A. The Japanese Automobile Industry: Technology and Management at Nissan and Toyota. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985.
Consumer Finance Innovation
Installment Credit Systems (1915-1930s) – Consumer financing for automobile purchases Example: General Motors Acceptance Corporation establishment of auto loan programs Olney, Martha L. Buy Now, Pay Later: Advertising, Credit, and Consumer Durables in the 1920s. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. Calder, Lendol. Financing the American Dream: A Cultural History of Consumer Credit. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
Automobile Insurance Development (1920s-1940s) – Risk management systems for vehicle ownership Example: State Farm and other companies’ development of automobile insurance products Zelizer, Viviana A. Rotman. Morals and Markets: The Development of Life Insurance in the United States. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979. Baker, Tom. Insurance Law and Policy: Cases and Materials. 2nd ed. New York: Aspen Publishers, 2003.
Infrastructure Development Standards
Highway Engineering Standards (1916-1940s) – Road construction specifications and traffic management Example: Federal Highway Act and standardized road construction specifications Lewis, Tom. Divided Highways: Building the Interstate System, Transforming American Life. New York: Viking, 1997. Seely, Bruce E. Building the American Highway System: Engineers as Policy Makers. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987.
Traffic Control Systems (1920s-1950s) – Standardized traffic signals, signs, and road markings Example: Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices establishment of national standards Norton, Peter D. Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008. Bottles, Scott L. Los Angeles and the Automobile: The Making of the Modern City. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Labor Management and Human Resources
Scientific Management Applications (1913-1930s) – Systematic work study and productivity optimization Example: Ford’s time-and-motion studies and worker efficiency programs Taylor, Frederick Winslow. The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1911. Kanigel, Robert. The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency. New York: Viking, 1997.
Industrial Relations Innovation (1914-1940s) – Systematic approaches to labor-management coordination Example: Ford’s $5 workday and employee welfare programs Brody, David. Workers in Industrial America: Essays on the Twentieth Century Struggle. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Jacoby, Sanford M. Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism Since the New Deal. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997.
Cycle 5: Information Age (IBM/Intel – 1971)
Semiconductor and Computing Standards
Microprocessor Architecture Standards (1971-1990s) – x86 and compatible processor specifications Example: Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, and 8086 architecture evolution and compatibility maintenance Malone, Michael S. The Microprocessor: A Biography. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1995. Jackson, Tim. Inside Intel: Andy Grove and the Rise of the World’s Most Powerful Chip Company. New York: Dutton, 1997.
Memory and Storage Standards (1970s-2000s) – RAM, ROM, and storage device specifications Example: DRAM, SRAM, and flash memory standards enabling system interoperability Mack, Chris, ed. Fundamental Principles of Optical Lithography: The Science of Microfabrication. Chichester: Wiley, 2007. Hutcheson, G. Dan. Technology, Economics, and Politics: The Triple Helix Unbound. Singapore: World Scientific, 2001.
Software Development Standards
Programming Language Standardization (1970s-1990s) – C, C++, and object-oriented programming standards Example: ANSI C standard and object-oriented programming methodology development Kernighan, Brian W., and Dennis M. Ritchie. The C Programming Language. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988. Stroustrup, Bjarne. The Design and Evolution of C++. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994.
Software Engineering Methodologies (1980s-2000s) – Systematic software development and project management Example: Structured programming, software lifecycle models, and quality assurance procedures Boehm, Barry W. Software Engineering Economics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1981. Pressman, Roger S. Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010.
Networking and Internet Standards
TCP/IP Protocol Development (1973-1980s) – Internet communication protocol standardization Example: ARPANET protocol development and Internet standardization Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Leiner, Barry M., et al. “The Past and Future History of the Internet.” Communications of the ACM 40, no. 2 (1997): 102-108.
World Wide Web Standards (1989-2000s) – HTML, HTTP, and web protocol development Example: Tim Berners-Lee’s web standards and W3C standardization efforts Berners-Lee, Tim, with Mark Fischetti. Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1999. Gillies, James, and Robert Cailliau. How the Web Was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Database and Information Management
Relational Database Standards (1970s-1990s) – SQL and database management system specifications Example: IBM’s System R and Oracle’s commercial database system development Date, C.J. An Introduction to Database Systems. 8th ed. Boston: Pearson/Addison Wesley, 2004. Codd, E.F. “A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.” Communications of the ACM 13, no. 6 (1970): 377-387.
Data Interchange Standards (1980s-2000s) – XML, JSON, and structured data format specifications Example: Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and web services standardization Goldfarb, Charles F., and Paul Prescod. The XML Handbook. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000. Harold, Elliotte Rusty, and W. Scott Means. XML in a Nutshell. 3rd ed. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, 2004.
Security and Cryptography Standards
Public Key Cryptography (1976-1990s) – RSA and digital signature algorithm development Example: Diffie-Hellman key exchange and RSA encryption algorithm standardization Diffie, Whitfield, and Martin Hellman. “New Directions in Cryptography.” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory 22, no. 6 (1976): 644-654. Singh, Simon. The Code Book: The Evolution of Secrecy from Mary, Queen of Scots, to Quantum Cryptography. New York: Doubleday, 1999.
Internet Security Protocols (1990s-2000s) – SSL/TLS and secure communication standards Example: Netscape’s SSL development and Internet security infrastructure Rescorla, Eric. SSL and TLS: Designing and Building Secure Systems. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2001. Ferguson, Niels, and Bruce Schneier. Practical Cryptography. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2003.
Platform and Ecosystem Development
Operating System Standards (1980s-2000s) – DOS, Windows, and UNIX system specifications Example: Microsoft Windows API development and POSIX UNIX standardization Young, Jeffrey S. Steve Jobs: The Journey Is the Reward. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1988. Salus, Peter H. A Quarter Century of UNIX. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994.
Application Development Platforms (1990s-2010s) – SDK, API, and development framework standardization Example: Microsoft Visual Studio, Java development environment, and web development platforms Liberty, Jesse. Programming C#. 4th ed. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, 2005. Gosling, James, et al. The Java Language Specification. 3rd ed. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2005.
Global Technology Transfer and Standards Organizations
International Standards Coordination (1980s-2000s) – ISO, IEEE, and W3C global technology standardization Example: ISO 9000 quality standards and IEEE computer society technical standards Spring, Michael B. “Informating with Information Technology.” MIS Quarterly 15, no. 2 (1991): 223-240. Updegrove, Andrew. “Standard Setting and Consortium Participation Strategies.” StandardView 1, no. 1 (1993): 1-8.
Semiconductor Manufacturing Standards (1970s-2000s) – Global semiconductor fabrication and testing specifications Example: SEMI standards for semiconductor equipment and materials Mack, Chris. “Fifty Years of Moore’s Law.” IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing 24, no. 2 (2011): 202-207. Semiconductor Industry Association. International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors. San Jose: SIA, various years.
Cross-Cycle Institutional and Financial Innovations
Patent and Intellectual Property Systems
Industrial Patent Development (1790s-1880s) – Systematic intellectual property protection and technology commercialization Example: U.S. Patent Act of 1790 and subsequent patent system evolution Khan, B. Zorina. The Democratization of Invention: Patents and Copyrights in American Economic Development, 1790-1920. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Lamoreaux, Naomi R., and Kenneth L. Sokoloff. “Inventors, Firms, and the Market for Technology in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries.” In Learning by Doing in Markets, Firms, and Countries, edited by Naomi R. Lamoreaux, Daniel M.G. Raff, and Peter Temin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.
Financial Market Innovation
Venture Capital Development (1940s-1990s) – Risk capital for technology startup companies Example: American Research and Development Corporation and Sand Hill Road venture capital Ante, Spencer E. Creative Capital: Georges Doriot and the Birth of Venture Capital. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2008. Kenney, Martin, ed. Understanding Silicon Valley: The Anatomy of an Entrepreneurial Region. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000.
Technology Stock Markets (1971-2000s) – NASDAQ and technology-focused securities trading Example: NASDAQ establishment and technology IPO market development Mahoney, Paul G. “The Political Economy of the Securities Act of 1933.” Journal of Legal Studies 30, no. 1 (2001): 1-31. Ritter, Jay R., and Ivo Welch. “A Review of IPO Activity, Pricing, and Allocations.” Journal of Finance 57, no. 4 (2002): 1795-1828.
International Economic Integration
Bretton Woods System (1944-1971) – International monetary coordination enabling global technology trade Example: Fixed exchange rates and international trade facilitation Bordo, Michael D. “The Bretton Woods International Monetary System: A Historical Overview.” In A Retrospective on the Bretton Woods System, edited by Michael D. Bordo and Barry Eichengreen.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Eichengreen, Barry. Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919-1939. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
World Trade Organization and Technology Trade (1995-present) – International framework for technology and intellectual property trade Example: TRIPS Agreement and international technology transfer regulations Maskus, Keith E. Intellectual Property Rights in the Global Economy. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 2000. Sell, Susan K. Private Power, Public Law: The Globalization of Intellectual Property Rights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Educational and Professional Development
Technical Education Systems (1850s-1950s) – Engineering schools and professional training programs Example: MIT, Carnegie Technical Schools, and land-grant university engineering programs Noble, David F. America by Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism. New York: Knopf, 1977. Calvert, Monte A. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967.
Corporate Research and Development (1900s-1980s) – Industrial laboratories and systematic innovation management Example: Bell Labs, General Electric Research Laboratory, and corporate R&D systems Reich, Leonard S. The Making of American Industrial Research: Science and Business at GE and Bell, 1876-1926. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Hounshell, David A., and John Kenly Smith Jr. Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902-1980. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Environmental and Regulatory Innovation
Environmental Standards and Protection
Industrial Pollution Control (1970s-2000s) – Environmental protection standards for manufacturing Example: Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and industrial emission standards Portney, Paul R., ed. Public Policies for Environmental Protection. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, 2000. Stavins, Robert N., ed. Economics of the Environment: Selected Readings. 4th ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000.
Electronic Waste Management (1990s-2010s) – Standards for technology product lifecycle and disposal Example: RoHS directive and electronic waste recycling regulations Widmer, Rolf, et al. “Global Perspectives on E-Waste.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 25, no. 5 (2005): 436-458. Robinson, Brett H. “E-Waste: An Assessment of Global Production and Environmental Impacts.” Science of the Total Environment 408, no. 2 (2009): 183-191.
Safety and Consumer Protection
Product Safety Standards (1960s-2000s) – Consumer protection and product liability frameworks Example: Consumer Product Safety Commission and product testing standards Viscusi, W. Kip, John M. Harrington Jr., and Edward F. Vernon. Economics of Regulation and Antitrust. 4th ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005. Breyer, Stephen G. Regulation and Its Reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982.
Information Technology Security Standards (1990s-2010s) – Cybersecurity and data protection regulations Example: HIPAA, SOX, and international data privacy regulations Anderson, Ross J. Security Engineering: A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2008. Solove, Daniel J. Understanding Privacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
Global Technology Governance
International Standards Organizations
ISO Development and Technology Standards (1947-present) – International Organization for Standardization technical coordination Example: ISO 9000 quality management and ISO 14000 environmental management standards Shapiro, Carl. “Setting Compatibility Standards: Cooperation or Collusion?” In Expanding the Boundaries of Intellectual Property, edited by Rochelle Cooper Dreyfuss, Diane Leenheer Zimmerman, and Harry First. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Updegrove, Andrew. “Consortiums and the Role of the Government in Standard Setting.” In Standards Policy for Information Infrastructure, edited by Brian Kahin and Janet Abbate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995.
ITU and Global Communications Standards (1865-present) – International Telecommunication Union coordination of communication technologies Example: Radio spectrum allocation and international telecommunications standards Hills, Jill. The Struggle for Control of Global Communication: The Formative Century. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002. Codding, George Arthur, and Anthony M. Rutkowski. The International Telecommunication Union in a Changing World. Dedham, MA: Artech House, 1982.
Technology Transfer and Development
Technology Transfer Mechanisms (1950s-2000s) – Systematic international technology diffusion Example: UNCTAD technology transfer guidelines and international licensing frameworks Contractor, Farok J. International Technology Licensing: Compensation, Costs, and Negotiation. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1981. Reddy, N. Mohan, and Liming Zhao. “International Technology Transfer: A Review.” Research Policy 19, no. 4 (1990): 285-307.
Foreign Direct Investment and Technology (1960s-2000s) – Multinational corporation technology diffusion strategies Example: Semiconductor, automotive, and software industry global expansion Caves, Richard E. Multinational Enterprise and Economic Analysis. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Dunning, John H. Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy. Wokingham: Addison-Wesley, 1993.
Contemporary and Emerging Innovation Areas
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Standards
AI Ethics and Standards Development (2010s-present) – Systematic frameworks for artificial intelligence governance Example: IEEE Standards for Artificial Intelligence and algorithmic accountability frameworks Russell, Stuart, and Peter Norvig. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. 4th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2020. O’Neil, Cathy. Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. New York: Crown, 2016.
Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Standards
Genetic Engineering and Biosafety Standards (1970s-present) – Regulatory frameworks for biotechnology development Example: NIH Guidelines for Research Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules and FDA biotechnology regulation Krimsky, Sheldon. Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982. Thompson, Paul B. Food Biotechnology in Ethical Perspective. 2nd ed. Dordrecht: Springer, 2007.
Renewable Energy and Sustainability Standards
Clean Energy Technology Standards (1990s-present) – Technical specifications and policy frameworks for renewable energy Example: Solar panel efficiency standards, wind turbine safety specifications, and grid integration protocols Jacobson, Mark Z., and Cristina L. Archer. “Saturation Wind Power Potential and its Implications for Wind Energy.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109, no. 39 (2012): 15679-15684. Lewis, Nathan S. “Toward Cost-Effective Solar Energy Use.” Science 315, no. 5813 (2007): 798-801.
Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials
Nanotechnology Standards and Safety (2000s-present) – Regulatory frameworks for nanoscale technology development Example: ISO/TC 229 nanotechnology standards and environmental safety protocols Roco, Mihail C., and William Sims Bainbridge, eds. Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001. Maynard, Andrew D. Nanotechnology: A Research Strategy for Addressing Risk. Washington, DC: Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, 2006.
Historical Analysis and Technology Studies
Technology and Economic Development
Long-Wave Economic Theory (1920s-present) – Kondratieff cycles and technological innovation patterns Example: Schumpeterian innovation cycles and techno-economic paradigm analysis Freeman, Christopher, and Carlota Perez. “Structural Crises of Adjustment, Business Cycles and Investment Behaviour.” In Technical Change and Economic Theory, edited by Giovanni Dosi et al. London: Pinter Publishers, 1988. Perez, Carlota. Technological Revolutions and Financial Capital: The Dynamics of Bubbles and Golden Ages. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2002.
Innovation Systems Analysis (1980s-present) – National and regional innovation system studies Example: Silicon Valley, Route 128, and other regional innovation cluster analysis Lundvall, Bengt-Åke, ed. National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning. London: Pinter Publishers, 1992. Nelson, Richard R., ed. National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Science and Technology Studies
Social Construction of Technology (1980s-present) – Technology development as social and political process Example: SCOT analysis of bicycle, automobile, and computer development Bijker, Wiebe E., Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987. MacKenzie, Donald, and Judy Wajcman, eds. The Social Shaping of Technology. 2nd ed. Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999.Actor-Network Theory and Technology (1980s-present) – Network analysis of technology development and diffusion Example: Latour’s analysis of technological networks and system building Latour, Bruno. Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987. Callon, Michel, John Law, and Arie Rip, eds. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology. London: Macmillan, 1986.